Biases

Biases in tests of treatments are those influences and factors that can lead to conclusions about treatment effects that are systematically different from the truth.


JLL Essay
2.0 Avoiding biased treatment comparisons

So what are fair tests?

 

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Hippocrates (5th Century BCE)
Ancient Medicine. In: Littré MPE (1839). Oeuvres complètes d’Hippocrate, vol 1. Traduction nouvelle avec le texte grec en regard, collationé sur les manuscrits et toutes les éditions; accompagnée d’une introduction, de commentaries medicaux, de variants et de notes philologiques; suivie d’ une table générale des matières. Paris: J-B Bailliere, p 572.

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Paré A (1575)
1575 Les oeuvres de M. Ambroise Paré conseiller, et premier chirurgien du Roy avec les figures & portraicts tant de l'Anatomie que des instruments de Chirurgie, & de plusieurs Monstres. [The works of M. Ambroise Paré, advisor, and first surgeon to the King, with figures and portraits concerning anatomy as well as surgical instruments, and several monsters] Paris: Gabriel Buon.

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Bacon F (1626)
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Bacon F (1645)
Franc Baconis de Verulamio / Summi Angliae Cancellarii /Novum organum scientiarum. Lugd. Bat: apud Adrianum Wiingaerde, et Franciscum Moiardum. Aphorism XLVI (pages 45-46).

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Van Helmont JB (1648)
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Starkey G (1657)
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Boyle R (1661)
In defense of Experimental Essays. In: Certain Physiological Essays, written at distant times, and on several occasions pp 4-5. London: Printed for Henry Herringman at the Anchor in the Lower walk in the New-Exchange.

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Wiseman R (1676)
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Massey I (1723)
A short and plain account of inoculation. With some remarks on the main argument made use of to recommend that practice, by Mr. Maitland and others. To which is added, a letter to the learned James Jurin, M.D.R.S. Secr. Col. Reg. Med. Lond. Soc. London: W. Meadows.

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Jurin J (1724)
A letter to the learned Dr. Caleb Cotesworth, F. R. S. of the College of Physicians, London, and physician to St. Thomas's Hospital; containing a comparison between the danger of the natural small pox, and that given by inoculation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1722 - 1723), 32:213-227.

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Lind J (1753)
A treatise of the scurvy. In three parts. Containing an inquiry into the nature, causes and cure, of that disease. Together with a critical and chronological view of what has been published on the subject. Edinburgh: Printed by Sands, Murray and Cochran for A Kincaid and A Donaldson.

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Gregory J (1772)
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Mesmer FA (1781)
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Commission Royale. Bailly A (1784)
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Haygarth J (1784)
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Withering W (1785)
An account of the foxglove and some of its medical uses: with practical remarks on dropsy and other diseases. London: J and J Robinson.

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Parry CH (1786)
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Fowler T (1786)
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Sims RC (1791)
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Haygarth J (1793)
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Currie J (1797)
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Haygarth J (1800)
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de Villalba J (1802)
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Lesassier Hamilton A (1816)
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Löhner G, on behalf of a Society of truth-loving men (1835)
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Carlisle A (1839)
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Tessier JP (1852)
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Balfour TG (1854)
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Thompson T (1859)
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Semmelweis I (1861)
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Holmes OW (1861)
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Bennett JH (1865)
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Wanscher O (1877)
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Keith T (1878)
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Hill B (1879)
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Storke EF, Martin R, Rosenkrans EM, Ford J, Schloemilch A, McDermott GC, Carlson OW (1880)
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Pasteur L (1881)
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Champneys FH (1881)
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Cook County Board of Commissioners (1882)
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Reverdin J-L, Reverdin A (1883)
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Kocher T (1883)
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Rayleigh, The Lord (1885)
Address by the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh. In: Report of the fifty-fourth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; held at Montreal in August and September 1884. London: John Murray: 3-23.

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Hartridge G (1886)
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Fry HD (1887)
The value of the antiseptic method in obstetric practice and its application to the forceps operation. JAMA 8:388-390.

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Boxall, cited in Williams J (1888)
On the effect of ergot on the involution of the uterus. BMJ 1:229.

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Stuart W (1889)
A remarkable case of morphine addiction. BMJ 1:1051-52.

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Phillips J (1890)
On the analgesic value of antipyrin intra - and post - partum. Lancet 2:605-607.

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Behring EA, Boer NN, Kossel H (1893)
Zur Behandlung diphtheriekranker Menschen mit Diphtherieheilserum [On the treatment of diphtheria patients with curative diphtheria serum]. Deutsche Medicinische Wochenschrift 17:389-39.

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Roux E, Martin L, Chaillou A (1894)
Trois cent cas de diphthérie traité par le serum antidiphthérique. Annales de l’Institut Pasteur 8:640-661.

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Webster Fox L (1894)
Immediate capsulotomy following the removal of cataract. JAMA 22:837-39.

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Priestley J (1895)
On the value of eucalyptus oil as a disinfectant in scarlet fever. Lancet 1:861-863.

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Brown EH (1896)
Cholera and its treatment by preventive inoculation in the Darbhanga Jail. Indian Medical Gazette, July, 247-250.

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Pregl F (1896)
Zwei weitere ergographische Versuchsreihen über die Wirkung orchistischen Extraktes [Two further ergographic experimental series on the effects of testicular extracts]. Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie 62:379-399.

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Winters JE (1896)
Clinical observations upon the use of antitoxin in diphtheria: A report of personal investigation of this treatment in the principal fever hospitals of Europe during the summer of 1895. Medical Record 49:877-893.

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Vorderman AG (1897)
Onderzoek naar het verband tusschen den aard der rijstvoeding in de gevangenissen op Java en Madoera en het voorkomen van beri-beri onder de geïnterneerden. Batavia: Jav. Boekh. & Drukkerij.

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Fibiger J (1898)
Om serumbehandling af difteri [On treatment of diphtheria with serum]. Hospitalstidende 6:309-325.

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Williams FH (1899)
Scarlatina. Reports of societies. Boston Medical And Surgical Journal 141:348.

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Clemow (1899)
Yersin serum treatment of plague. BMJ 1:48.

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Anonymous (1899)
Echoes and news: the chlorine treatment of diphtheria. Medical News 74:403.

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Cotton FJ (1899)
The Present Status of the Antistreptococcic Serum. New England Journal of Medicine 140:105-109. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM189902021400501

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Langton J (1899)
A discussion on the treatment of hernia in children. BMJ 2:470-472.

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Maitland CB (1900)
Methylene blue in malarial fever. BMJ 2:532-533.

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Celli A (1900)
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Park WH (1900)
The quantity of diphtheria antitoxin required in the treatment of diphtheria. Archives of Paediatrics 17:823-827.

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Celli A (1900)
La nuova profilassi della malaria nel Lazio [The new prophylaxis against malaria in Lazio]. Supplemento al Policlinico 6:1601-1606.

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Haffkine WM (1900)
On preventive inoculation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 65:252-271.

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Park WH (1900)
Use of diphtheria antitoxin in the treatment and prevention of diphtheria. JAMA 34: 902-904.

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Choksy NH (1900)
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Lustig A, Galeotti G (1901)
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Choksy NH (1901)
Plague treatment with Lustig’s serum. Indian Medical Gazette 36:154–155.

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Indian Plague Commission (1902)
Serum therapeutics. Investigations conducted by the commissioners. BMJ 1:1159-1160.

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Fehling H (1903)
Zur Prophylaxe und Therapie des Puerperalfiebers [On the prophylaxis and treatment of puerperal fever]. Muenchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 18 Aug.

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Celli A (1903)
La malaria in Italia durante il 1902. Parte II: Profilassi della malaria. [Malaria in Italy in 1902. Part II: Prophylaxis of Malaria]. Annali di Igiene Sperimentale 13:322-343.

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Waters EE (1903)
Malaria as seen in the Andamans penal settlement. Lancet 1:1657-62.

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Polverini G (1903)
Serumtherapie gegen Beulenpest Muenchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 50:649-651.

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Cushny AR, Peebles AR (1905)
The action of optical isomers. II. Hyoscines. J Physiology 32:501-510.

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Haffkine WM (1905)
Report on a series of 484 cases of plague treated with Lustig’s anti-plague serum. In: Bannerman WB, ed. Serum-therapy of plague in India. Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India. Calcutta, India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, pp 27-36.

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Haffkine WM, Costello CT (1905)
Report on a series of 110 cases of plague treated with Terni’s anti-plague serum. In: Bannerman WB, ed. Serum-therapy of plague in India. Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India. Calcutta, India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, pp 37-46.

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Haffkine WM, West WG (1905)
Report on a series of 70 cases of plague treated with Brazil’s anti-plague serum. In: Bannerman WB, ed. Serum-therapy of plague in India. Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India. Calcutta, India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, pp 47-59.

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West WG (1905)
Report on a series of 68 cases of plague treated with Roux’ anti-plague serum. In: Bannerman WB, ed. Serum-therapy of plague in India. Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India. Calcutta, India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, pp 60-7

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Cousin M (1905)
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Netter A (1906)
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Goldberger J (1907)
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Drake DJ (1907)
The treatment of dysentery by yellow santonine. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 10:351-352.

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Fletcher W (1907)
Rice and beri-beri: preliminary report on an experiment conducted in the Kuala Lumpur Insane Asylum. Lancet 1:1776-1779.

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Choksy NH (1908)
On recent progress in serum-therapy of plague. BMJ 1:1282-1284.

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Anonymous (1908)
Alcohol in the treatment of pneumonia and enteric fever. Lancet 157:442.

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Rivers WHR (1908)
The influence of alcohol and other drugs on fatigue. London: Edward Arnold.

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Gewin J (1908)
Chlorkalzium gegen die Serumkrankheit [Calcium chloride against serum sickness]. Muenchener Medizinische Wochenshcrift 50:2670-2671.

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Editorial (1909)
The reporting of unsuccessful cases. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 161:263-263.

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Jansen H (1910)
Behandling med Radiumemanation særlig ved gigtiske Lidelser [Treatment with radium emanation especially with rheumatic diseases]. Ugeskrift for Læger 72:1333-48.

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Döderlein D (1910)
The origin and prevention of puerperal fever. BMJ 2:1222-24.

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Freeman J (1910)
Vaccine therapy. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 3:97-101.

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Hollingworth HL (1911)
The influence of caffeine on mental and motor efficiency. Archives of Psychology/Columbia Contributions to Philosophy and Psychology 20:iii-v

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Solis-Cohen M, Strickler A (1911)
The effect produced by some therapeutic measures on the different forms of leucocytes in pulmonary tuberculosis. New Enlgand Journal of Medicine 165:563-568.

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Barnes HL (1912)
Report of 150 cases of pulmonary tuberculosis treated with tuberculin. JAMA 59:332-33.

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Freeman RG (1912)
Serum treatment of pneumonia. JAMA 59:140.

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Park WH (1912)
The role of animal experimentation in the discoveries leading to our present knowledge of the etiology, prevention and cure of diphtheria. JAMA 53:453-459.

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Advisory Committee on Plague Investigations in India (1912)
The serum treatment of human plague. Journal of Hygiene. Plague Supplement II, LVI:326-39.

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Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry (1913)
Sinkina. JAMA 61:1056-1058.

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Rosenow EC, Hektoen L (1913)
Treatment of pneumonia with partially autolyzed pneumococci. JAMA 61:2203-4.

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Hewlett AW (1913)
Clinical effects of “natural” and “synthetic” sodium salicylate. JAMA 61:319-321.

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Carver AE (1914)
Pneumosan in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Lancet 2:372-373.

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Wright AE, Morgan WP, Colebrook L, Dodgson RW (1914)
Observations on prophylactic inoculation against pneumococcus infections, and on the results which have been achieved by it. Lancet 1:87-95

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Wright AE (1914)
On pharmaco-therapy and preventive inoculation applied to pneumonia in the African Native. London: Constable, p 84.

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Baer JL (1915)
Scopolamin-morphin treatment in labor. JAMA 64:1723-1728.

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Wesselhoeft W (1915)
Hospital Efficiency from the Standpoint of Hospital Trustees. The New England Journal of Medicine 172:778. 10.1056/NEJM191505271722104

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Bastedo WA (1915)
Clinical Experience with Liquid Paraffin (Liquid Petrolatum): A Comparative Investigation Made Under the Auspices of the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry. JAMA 64: 808-809.

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Goadby K (1916)
An inquiry into the natural history of septic wounds. Lancet 188: 89-95.

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Plass ED (1916)
Post partum care of perineum. Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital 27:107-109.

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Leake JP (1917)
Bacterial vaccine therapy. JAMA 69:631-632.

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Von Sholly AI, Blum J, Smith L (1917)
The therapeutic value of pertussis vaccine in whooping cough. JAMA 68:1451-1456.

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Sollmann T (1917)
The crucial test of therapeutic evidence. JAMA 69:198-199.

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McCoy GW, Murray VB, Teeter AL (1918)
The failure of a bacterial vaccine as a prophylactic against influenza. JAMA 71:1997.

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Wiltshire HW (1918)
Note on the value of germinated beans in the treatment of scurvy, and some points in prophylaxis. Lancet 2:811-813.

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Kyes P (1918)
The treatment of lobar pneumonia with an anti-pneumococcus serum. Journal of Medical Research 38:495-501.

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Avata AA, Woodyatt RT (1918)
Treatment of facial erysipelas at Camp Cody, N.M. JAMA 71:900-01.

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Bingel A (1918)
Über Behandlung der Diphtherie mit gewöhnlichem Pferdeserum [On the treatment of diphtheria with normal horse serum]. Deutsches Archiv für Klinische Medizin 125:284-332.

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Hinton WA, Kane ES (1919)
Use of influenza vaccine as a prophylactic – an experimental study conducted by the Massachusetts State Department of Health. Journal of the Tennessee State Medical Association 11:442-446.

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Lees D (1919)
Detoxicated vaccines in the treatment of gonorrhœa: the value of the complement-deviation test in controlling the treatment and estimating its therapeutic effect. Lancet 1:1107-1111.

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Leighton Kesteven H (1919)
A study of epidemic influenza in Australia. Lancet 2:1189-91.

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Mcguire LW, Redden WR (1919)
Treatment of Influenzal pneumonia by the use of convalescent human serum, Second report. JAMA 72:709-713. doi:10.1001/jama.1919.02610100017007

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Acton HW (1920)
Researches on the treatment of benign tertian fever. Lancet 1:1257-1261.

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Gray AW (1920)
Antipneumococcus serum (Kyes’s) in the treatment of pneumonia. American Journal of Medical Sciences 159:885-891.

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Cecil RL, Larsen NP (1922)
Clinical and bacteriologic study of one thousand cases of lobar pneumonia. JAMA 79:343-349.

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Johnston RA, Siddall RS (1922)
Is the usual method of preparing patients for delivery beneficial or necessary? American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 4:645-650.

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Kopeloff N, Kirby GH (1923)
Focal infection and mental disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 3:149-197.

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McCall WA (1923)
How to experiment in education. New York: Macmillan.

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Greenwood M (1924)
Is the statistical method of any value in medical research? Lancet 2: 153-158.

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Medical Research Council (1925)
Report of the committee upon cinchona derivatives and malaria. In: Clinical comparisons of quinine and quinidine. London: HMSO, pp 5-16.

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Oliver WW, Stoller EA (1925)
Notes on the therapeutic value of pneumococcus antibody solution subcutaneously administered in lobar pneumonia. Archives of Internal Medicine 35:267-286.

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Moir JC (1925)
Comparison of the narcotic effects of the two hyoscines (scopolomaines). BMJ 2:514-515.

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Fletcher W (1925)
The relative efficiency of quinine and quinidine in the treatment of malaria. In: Medical Research Council. Clinical comparisons of quinine and quinidine. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp 17-27.

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Park WH (1925)
Scarlet fever: etiology, prevention by immunization, and antitoxic treatment. JAMA 85:1180-1186.

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Diehl HS (1925)
Value of Chlorin in the treatment of colds. JAMA 84:1629-32.

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Sinton JA (1926)
Studies in Malaria, with special reference to Treatment. Part I. Introduction and routine methods. Indian Journal of Medical Research 13: 565-577.

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Sinton JA (1926)
Studies in Malaria, with special reference to treatment. Part II. The effects of treatment on the prevention of relapse in infections with Plasmodium Falciparum. Indian Journal of Medical Research 13: 579-601.

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Mauel W (1926)
Ist das Omnadin bei kruppöser Pneumonie wirksam [Is Omnadin effective in pneumonia with croup]? Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 73:652.

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Wagner-Jauregg J (1926)
Die moderne Therapie der Neurolues [On modern therapy for neurosyphilis]. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Innere Medizin. Achtundreissigster Kongress. München: Bergmann, p 34-62.

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Harris KE (1927)
Series of cases of auricular fibrillation treated with quinidine sulphate. Heart 14:283-288.

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Sinton JA (1927)
Studies in Malaria, with special reference to treatment. Part VII. The intravenous injection of sodium stovarsol in the treatment of benign tertian malaria. Indian Journal of Medical Research 15:287-299.

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Earp JR (1927)
The need for reporting negative results. JAMA 88:119.

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Harries (1927)
Discussion on the serum treatment of scarlet fever. Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine 20:1175–1176.

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Symmers D, Lewis KM (1927)
The antitoxin treatment of erysipelas: observations in one hundred and thirty-one patients at Bellevue Hospital. JAMA 89:880-2.

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Gordon E (1927)
Treatment of scarlet fever with streptococcus antitoxin. JAMA 88:382-5.

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McCann WS (1928)
The serum treatment of erysipelas. JAMA 91:78-81.

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Ferry NS, Gordon EJ, Munro FW, Steele AH, Fisher LW (1928)
Clinical results with measles streptococcus toxin and antitoxin. JAMA 91:1277-1280.

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Cecil RL, Sutliff WD (1928)
The treatment of lobar pneumonia with concentrated anti-pneumococcus serum. JAMA 91:2036-2040.

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Bullowa JGM (1928)
Use of antipneumococcic refined serum in lobar pneumonia: data necessary for a comparison between cases treated with serum and cases not so treated, and the importance of a significant control series of cases. JAMA 90: 1354-1358.

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Ross WC, Bagchi KN , Roy BC (1928)
The bacteriophage in cholera. Indian Journal of Medical Research 15:965-968.

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Park WH, Bullowa JGM, Rosenbluth NM (1928)
The treatment of lobar pneumonia with refined specific antibacterial serum. JAMA 91:1503-1508.

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Joe A, Swyer R (1929)
A study of passive immunisation in scarlet fever. Lancet 1:177-179.

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Freeman J (1929)
Discussion on the action and use of ephedrine. Proceeding of Royal Society of Medicine 22:1369.

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Pearce RM (1929)
The treatment of influenza with S.U.P. 36. BMJ 2:663-666.

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Sinton JA, Bird W (1929)
Studies in Malaria, with special reference to treatment. Part XI: The Cinchona alkaloids in the treatment of benign tertian malaria. Indian Journal of Medical Research 16: 725-746.

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Colebrook D (1929)
Irradiation and health. Medical Research Council Special Report Series No.131.

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Bullowa JGM (1929)
The serum treatment and its evaluation in lobar pneumonia. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 5:328-362.

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Heald CB (1929)
The present position of ultraviolet light therapy. BMJ 1:94-97.

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Finland M (1930)
The serum treatment of lobar pneumonia. New England Journal of Medicine 202:1244-1247.

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Cecil RL, Plummer N (1930)
Pneumococcus type I pneumonia - a study of eleven hundred and sixty-one cases, with especial reference to specific therapy. JAMA 95:1547-1553.

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Kauders O (1930)
Ueber Nachbehandlung nach Malariatherapie [On the management of patients after malaria therapy]. Deutsche Medizinishe Wochenshcrift 61:400-401.

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Wyckoff J, Du Bois EF, Woodruff IO (1930)
The therapeutic value of digitalis in pneumonia. JAMA 95:1243-1249.

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Cecil RL, Plummer N (1932)
Pneumococcus Type II pneumonia: a clinical and bacteriologic study of one thousand cases, with especial reference to serum therapy. JAMA 98:779-86.

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Sanders JP, Dawson, WT (1932)
Efficacy of quinidine in malaria. JAMA 99:1773-7.

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Effect of knee-chest position and postural exercises on postpartum retroversion. JAMA 99:726-8.

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Medicinal treatment of the common cold. JAMA 101:2042-2049.

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The substitution of atebrin for quinine in treated “ambulatory” cases of malaria on rubber estates. In: Neave Kingsbury A. Annual Report of the Institute for Medical Research, Federated Malay States, p 16-24.

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Doull JA, Shibley GS, McClelland JE (1936)
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The therapeutic value of calcium salts in serum sickness. New England Journal of Medicine 214:150-153.

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Bacteriophage in the treatment of cholera. Indian Medical Gazette 71:61-68.

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Clinical experiences with the new alkaloid, ergometrine. BMJ 2:799-801.

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The prevention of hypochromic anaemia in pregnancy. JAMA 106:1088-1090.

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Whooping-cough: value of a specific vaccine in treatment. Lancet 1:82-83.

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Pratt JP, Thomas WL (1937)
The endocrine treatment of menopausal phenomena. JAMA 109:1875-1880.

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Principles of medical statistics. London: Lancet.

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Value of a specific serum in the treatment of typhoid fever. BMJ 1:1009-1012.

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Evaluation by controlled series of vaginal trichomoniasis therapies. JAMA 109:768-71.

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Malaria Commission (1937)
The treatment of Malaria: Study of synthetic drugs, as compared with Quinine, in the therapeutics and prophylaxis of Malaria. Bulletin of the Health Organisation, Vol VI, no. 6.

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The xanthines (theobromine and aminophyllin) in the treatment of cardiac pain. JAMA 108;2173-2179.

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Wilbur DL, MacLean AR, Allen EV (1937)
Clinical observations on the effect of Benzedrine sulphate. JAMA 109:549-54.

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Diehl HS, Baker AB, Cowan DW (1938)
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A note on the use of sulfanilamide in scarlet fever. Baltimore Health News 15:41-44.

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Effects of vitamin B (B1) therapy on the polyneuritis of alcohol addicts. JAMA 110:414-419.

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Prophylactic use of sulphonamide preparations in obstetric practice. BMJ 1:562-64.

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Harrison WT, Franklin JP, Bell JA (1938)
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Ross RA, Perlzweig WA, Taylor HM, McBryde A, Yates A, Kondritzer AA, Durham NC (1938)
A study of certain dietary factors of possible etiologic significance in toxemias of pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 35:426-440.

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Aykroyd WR, Krishnan RSBG (1938)
Effect of calcium lactate on children in a nursery school. Lancet 2:153-155.

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Gaudin HJ, Zide HA, Thompson GJ (1938)
Use of sulfanilamide after transurethral prostatectomy. JAMA 110:1887-90.

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Concentrated streptococcus (hemolytic) antitoxic serum in puerperal fever: further therapeutic studies. JAMA 110:1988-91.

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Bahnsen P, Jacobsen E, Thesleff H (1938)
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Erfahrungen mit der Serumtherapie der kruppösen Pneumonie. [Experiences with serum therapy of pneumonia with croup]. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 64:221-225.

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Volini IF, Levitt RO (1939)
The treatment of Pneumococcic pneumonia with concentrated rabbit serum. JAMA 113: 1314-6.

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Lanman TH, Heyl HL (1939)
Empyema in Children. New England Journal of Medicine 221:1003-1009.

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Murless BC (1939)
Effect of follicular hormone on menopausal flushes. Lancet 233:1205-1206.

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Vitamin E: (Section of Therapeutics and Pharmacology). Proc R Soc Med. 3: 853–864.

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Treatment of pneumococcic pneumonia with sulfanilamide. JAMA 112:1021-7.

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Top FH, Young DC (1939)
Specific and non-specific serum treatment of scarlet fever. American Journal of Public Health 29:443-451.

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Master AM, Jaffe HL, Dack S (1939)
The drug treatment of angina pectoris due to coronary artery disease. American Journal of Medical Science 197:774-782.

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Evans W, Loughman O (1939)
The drug treatment of hyperpiesia. British Heart Journal 1:199-228.

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Kendrick P, Eldering G (1939)
A study in active immunization against pertussis. American Journal of Hygiene 29 Sec. B:133-153.

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Dub LA, Lurie LA (1939)
Use of benzedrine in the depressed phase of the psychotic state. Ohio State Medical Journal 35:39-45.

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Cutts M, Gormly CF, Burgess AM (1939)
The treatment of lobar pneumonia with sulfapyridine. New England Journal of Medicine 221:263-266.

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Graham D, Warner WP, Dauphinée JA, Dickson RC (1939)
The treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia with Dagenan (M&B 693). Canadian Medical Association Journal 40:325-332.

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Sulphanilamide in the treatment of measles. BMJ 1:716-718.

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Effects of a supplement of vitamin B (adsorbate) on the growth of infants. BMJ 2:80-82.

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Menten ML, Macdonald RR, Brönykovsky N (1940)
Treatment of pneumonia by sulfapyridine and by hydroxyethylapocupreine dihydrochloride. American Journal of Diseases of Children 59:497-508.

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Pratt JG, Rhine JB, Smith BM, Stuart CE, Greenwood JA (1940)
Extra-sensory perception after sixty years: a critical appraisal of the research in extra-sensory perception. New York: Henry Holt.

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Sidell N, Abrams MI (1940)
Treatment of chronic arthritis. JAMA 144:1740-1742.

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Lindquist EF (1940)
Statistical analysis in educational research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

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French JO, Hooker ML, Vause RB, Robinson AL (1940)
Dental anaesthesia in children: a comparision of vinyl ether and ethyl chloride in a series of 200 cases. BMJ 2:432-435.

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Jordan JH, Blakelock, Johnston WR (1940)
Treatment of cerebrospinal fever with suphapyridine. BMJ 1:1005-1008.

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Don CSD, Luxton RW, Donald HR, Ramsay WA, Macartney DW, Stewart Smith G, Adderley CH (1940)
Treatment of pneumonia with M&B 693. Lancet 1:311-4.

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Gaisford WF, Whitelaw W (1940)
Sulphathiazole in treatment of pneumococcal lobar pneumonia. Lancet 2:451-452.

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Rhoads PS, Afremow ML (1940)
Sulfanilamide in treatment of sore throat due to hemolytic streptococci: with controls. JAMA 114:942-3.

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Gregory KK, West EJ, Stevens RE (1940)
Epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis (meningococcic): the treatment of 113 patients with antimeningococcus serum, meningococcus antitoxin and sulfanilamide. JAMA 115:1091-5.

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Fleming JB (1941)
Treatment of diphtheria. BMJ 1:907.

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Anderson DEW, Cruickshank R (1941)
The treatment of bacilliary (Flexner) dysentery with sulphanilylguanidine. BMJ 2:497-501.

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Jones HB, Fairbrother RW (1941)
Sulphathiazole and sulphapyridine in acute gonorrhoea. Lancet 2:9-10.

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Top FH, Young DC (1941)
The treatment of moderately severe scarlet fever: A study of alternate patients treated with sulfanilamide, convalescent serum and scarlet fever antitoxin. JAMA 117:2056-60.

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Cooper ML, Zucker RL, Wagoner S, Brown EW, Bennett R (1941)
Sulfathiazole for acute diarrhea and dysentery of infants and children. JAMA 117:1520-3.

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Ewalt JR, Ebaugh FG (1941)
Treatment of dementia paralytica: A five year comparative study of artificial fever therapy and therapeutic malaria in two hundred and thirty-two cases. JAMA 116:2474-77.

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Wagle PM, Sokhey SH, Dikshit BB, Ganapathy K (1941)
Chemotherapy in plague. Indian Medical Gazette 76:29-32.

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Plummer N, Liebmann J, Solomon S, Kammerer WH, Kalkstein M, Ensworth HK (1941)
Chemotherapy versus combined chemotherapy and serum. JAMA 116:2366-2371.

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Cochrane AL (1941)
Reported in: Sickness in Salonica: my first, worst, and most successful clinical trial. BMJ 1984;289:1726-1727.

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Kaufman P (1941)
Studies on old age pneumonia. II. Prophylactic effect of pneumococcus polysaccharide against pneumonia. Archives of Internal Medicine 61:304-319.

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Miller M (1941)
Benzedrine sulphate in the treatment of nicotinism. Medical Record 2:590-593.

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Libertson W (1941)
A critical analysis of insulin therapy at Rochester State Hospital. Psychiatric Quarterly 15: 635-647.

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Alstead S (1941)
Action of Bismuth Carbonate in gastric disease. Lancet 238: 420-423.

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Bell JA (1941)
Pertussis prophylaxis with two doses of alum-precipitated vaccine. Public Health Reports 56:1535-1546.

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People's League of Health (1942)
Nutrition of expectant and nursing mothers: interim report. Lancet 2:10-12.

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Kendrick PL (1942)
Use of alum-treated pertussis vaccine, and alum-precipitated combined pertussis vaccine and diphtheria toxoid, for active immunization. American Journal of Public Health 32:615-626.

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Lipman Cohen E (1942)
Local treatment of impetigo with sulphonamide. BMJ 1:359.

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Siegel M (1942)
Studies on the control of acute respiratory infections: preliminary report on the oral administration of sulfadiazine at the onset of acute respiratory illnesses. JAMA 119:783-5.

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Lepper MH, Sweet LK, Dowling HF (1943)
The treatment of meningococcic infections with sulphadiazine and sulphamerazine. JAMA 123:134-138.

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Browne FJ (1943)
On the value of vitamin B1 in prevention of toxaemia of pregnancy. BMJ 1:445-446.

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Morgan TN, Wylie-Smith R (1943)
Lobar pneumonia treated with sulphamezathine and sulphadiazine. Lancet 2:731-733.

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Hopkins WA (1943)
Patulin in the common cold. IV: Biological properties: extended trial in the common cold. Lancet 2:630-635.

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Kendrick PL (1943)
Field study of alum-precipitated combined pertussis vaccine and diphtheria toxoid for active immunization. American Journal of Hygiene 38:193-202.

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Fowke H (1943)
The effect of supplements of vitamins and minerals on the health of girls. BMJ 2:519.

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Harper AA, MacKay IFS, Raper HS, Camm GL (1943)
Vitamins and physical fitness. BMJ 1:243–245.

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British Homoeopathic Society (1943)
Report on mustard gas experiments (Glasgow and London). British Homoeopathic Journal 33:1-12.

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Sigler LH, Tulgan J (1943)
Treatment of angina pectoris by testosterone propionate. New York State Journal of Medicine 43:1424-1428.

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Stuart-Harris CH, Francis AE, Stansfeld JM (1943)
Patulin in the common cold. Lancet 2:684.

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Vitamin C in school-children. Lancet 41:819-820.

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Holling HE, McArdle B, Trotter WR (1944)
Prevention of seasickness by drugs. Lancet 243:127-129.

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Boyd JSK, Portnoy B (1944)
Bacteriophage therapy in bacillary dysentery. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 37:243-262.

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Medical Research Council (1944)
Clinical trial of patulin in the common cold. Lancet 2:373-5.

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Coburn AF (1944)
The prevention of respiratory tract bacterial infections. JAMA 126:88-89.

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Scadding JG (1944)
Comparative effects of sulphonamide drugs in mild bacillary dysentery. Lancet 1:784-786.

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Fraser TN (1944)
Gold treatment in rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases. 4:71-75.

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Dieckmann WJ, Adair FL, Michel H, Kramer S, Dunkle F, Arthur B, Costin M, Campbell A, Wensley AC, Lorang E (1944)
Calcium, phosphorus, iron and nitrogen balances in pregnant women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 47:357-368.

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Florey ME, Williams REO (1944)
Hand infections treated with penicillin. Lancet 1:73-81.

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Stansfeld JM, Francis AE, Stuart-Harris CH (1944)
Laboratory and clinical trials of Patulin. Lancet 2:370-372.

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Commission on Influenza (1944)
A clinical evaluation of vaccination against influenza. JAMA 124:982-985.

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Wright J, Cruickshank R, Gunn W (1944)
The control of dust-borne streptococcal infection in measles wards. BMJ 1:611-614.

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Beattie J, Marshall J (1944)
Studies on hepatic dysfunction. II. The value of sulphur-containing amino-acids and casein digest in the prevention of post-arsphenamine jaundice. BMJ 2: 651-655.

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Vaccines and chemotherapy in pneumococcal lobar pneumonia. Lancet 1:564-565.

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Wolman M (1944)
Treatment of typhus with anti-typhus horse serum. Lancet 2:210-12.

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Discussion on Penicillin. Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine 37: 101–12.

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Yeomans A, Snyder JC, Murray ES, Zarafonetis CJD, Ecke RS (1944)
The therapeutic efficacy of para-aminobenzoic acid in louse borne typhus fever. JAMA 126:349-56.

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Cecil RL, Plummer N, Smillie WG (1944)
Sulfadiazine in the treatment of the common cold. JAMA 124:8-14.

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Fries ED (1944)
The treatment of tonsillitis with small doses of sulfonamides. JAMA 126:93-4.

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Anderson T (1944)
Clinical studies in sulphonamide chemotherapy. MD thesis, University of Glasgow.

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Bransby ER, Hunter JW, Magee HE, Milligan EHM, Rodgers TS (1944)
The influence of supplements of vitamins A, B1, B2, C, and D on growth, health and physical fitness. BMJ 1:77.

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Fletcher RT, Scadding JG (1945)
Observations on the MI room treatment of “acute simple diarrhoea” with sulphaguanidine. Unpublished manuscript.

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Wilson C, Pollock MR, Harris AD (1945)
Therapeutic trial of methionine in infective hepatitis. BMJ 1:399-401.

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Higgins G, O'Brien JRP, Peters RA, Stewart A, Witts LJ (1945)
Treatment of infectious hepatitis with methionine. BMJ 1:401-402.

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Darmady EM (1945)
The effects of protein diet on infective hepatitis. BMJ 1:795-797.

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Scadding JG (1945)
Sulphonamides in bacillary dysentery. Lancet 2:549-553.

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MacLeod CM, Hodges RG, Heidelberger M, Bernhard WG (1945)
Prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia by immunization with specific capsular polysaccharides. Journal of Experimental Medicine 82:445-465.

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Rosenthal SR, Blahd M, Leslie EI (1945)
Ten years’ experience with BCG (experimental and clinical). Journal of Pediatrics 26:470-80.

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McFarlan AM, Topley E, Fisher M (1945)
Trial of whooping-cough vaccine in city and residential nursery groups. BMJ 2:205-208.

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Hill IGW, Guest AI (1945)
Prevention of sea-sickness in assault craft. BMJ 2:6–11.

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Havens WP, Paul JR (1945)
Prevention of infectious hepatitis with gamma globulin. JAMA 129:270-272.

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Gunther M (1945)
Sore nipples - causes and prevention. Lancet 2:590-593.

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Bahlke AM, Perkins JE (1945)
Gamma globulin in poliomyelitis. JAMA 129:1146-1150.

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Wright J (1945)
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Foon KA, Smalley RV, Riggs CW, Gale RP (1983)
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Leizorovicz A, Boissel JP (1983)
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Moskowitz G, Chalmers TC, Sacks HS, Fagerstrom RM, Smith H Jr (1983)
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Yusuf S, Sleight P (1983)
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Furberg CD, Bell RL (1983)
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McDonald CJ, Hui SL, Smith DM, Tierney WM, Cohen SJ, Weinberger M, McCabe GP (1984)
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Gehlbach SH, Wilkinson WE, Hammond WE, Clapp NE, Finn AL, Taylor WJ, Rodell M (1984)
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Graham JW, Flay BR, Johnson CA, Hansen WB, Collins LM (1984)
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Yokley JM, Glenwick DS (1984)
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Roberts MM, Alexander FE, Anderson TJ, Forrest APM, Hepburn W, Huggins A, Kirkpatrick AE, Lamb J, Lutz W, Muir BB (1984)
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Simons-Morton BG, Coates TJ, Saylor KE, Sereghy E, Barofsky I (1984)
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Dielman TE, Leech SL, Lorenger AT, Horvath WJ (1984)
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Baskerville JC, Toogood JH, Mazza J, Jennings B. (1984)
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Tabár L, Fagerberg CJ, Gad A, Baldetorp L, Holmberg LH, Gröntoft O, Ljungquist U, Lundström B, Månson JC, Eklund G, Day NE, Pettersson F (1985)
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Walter HJ, Hofman A, Connelly PA, Barrett LT, Kost KL (1985)
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Herxheimer A, Zentler-Munro P, Winn D (1986)
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Bass MJ, McWhinney IR, Donner A (1986)
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Stross JK, Banwell BF, Wolf FM, Becker MC (1986)
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Himel HN, Liberati A, Gelber RD, Chalmers TC (1986)
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Davidson RA (1986)
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Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Streptochinasi nell'Infarto Miocardico (GISSI) (1986)
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Peto J, Eden OB, Lilleyman J, Richards S (1986)
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Goldschmidt PG (1986)
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Yusuf S, Simon R, Ellenberg SS (1987)
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Mulrow CD (1987)
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Dickersin K, Chan S, Chalmers TC, Sacks HS, Smith H (1987)
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Chalmers TC, Berrier J, Sacks HS, Levin H, Reitman D, Nagalingam R (1987)
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Pocock SJ, Hughes MD, Lee RJ (1987)
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Roifman CM, Levison H, Gelfand EW (1987)
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Goldberg HI, Cohen DI, Hershey CO, Hsiue I, Porter DK, McClaren CE (1987)
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King JF, Grant A, Keirse MJNC, Chalmers I (1988)
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Elbourne D, Prendiville W, Chalmers I (1988)
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Farr BM, Hendley JO, Kaiser DL, Gwaltney JM (1988)
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Streptomycin, 1946: British central administration of supplies of a new drug of American origin with special reference to clinical trials in tuberculosis. Philosophy Thesis, University of London. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Loudon I (2002).
The use of historical controls and concurrent controls to assess the effects of sulphonamides, 1936-1945. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Armitage P† (2002).
Randomisation and alternation: a note on Diehl et al. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Loudon I (2002).
An early Medical Research Council controlled trial of vitamins for preventing infection. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Olsen SF (2002).
The People’s League of Health trial. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Silverman WA†, Chalmers I (2002).
Casting and drawing lots: a time-honoured way of dealing with uncertainty and for ensuring fairness. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Scadding JG (2002).
Reflections on my studies of the effects of sulphonamide drugs in bacillary dysentery in Egypt, 1943-1944. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Chalmers I, Clarke M (2002).
J Guy Scadding and the move from alternation to randomization. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Doll R (2003).
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Vandenbroucke JP (2003).
The contribution of William Fletcher’s 1907 report to finding a cause and cure for beriberi. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Vandenbroucke JP (2003).
Thalidomide: an unanticipated adverse effect. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Vandenbroucke JP (2003).
Aspirin: an unanticipated beneficial effect. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Tröhler U (2003).
Adolf Bingel (1879-1953), a member of the last generation of general internal physicians in Germany. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Armitage P† (2003).
Some recollections of the early years of the Medical Research Council (MRC) Statistical Research Unit. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Stoll S (2004).
Paul Martini’s Methodology of therapeutic investigation. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Diaz M, Neuhauser D (2004).
Lessons from using randomization to assess gold treatment for tuberculosis. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Hampton J (2004).
An early parallel group trial in cardiology. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Cochrane AL, Blythe M (2004).
Sickness in Salonica. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Ferguson’s BCG research – Canada’s first randomized clinical trial? JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Clarke M (2004).
The 1944 patulin trial of the British Medical Research Council: an example of how concerted common purpose can get reliable answers to important questions very quickly. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Klar N, Donner A (2004).
The impact of E.F. Lindquist’s text “Statistical Analysis in Educational Research” on cluster randomisation. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Kaptchuk TJ (2004).
Early use of blind assessment in a homeopathic scientific experiment. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Elwood P (2004).
The first randomized trial of aspirin for heart attack and the advent of systematic overviews of trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Crofton J† (2004).
The MRC randomized trial of streptomycin and its legacy: a view from the clinical front line. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Donaldson IML (2004).
Ambroise Paré’s accounts of new methods for treating gunshot wounds and burns. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Edwards MV (2004).
Control and the therapeutic trial 1918 – 1948. MD Thesis, University of London. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Spanager L (2005).
Jansen’s 1910 use of a single blind experiment to assess the effects of radioactive water on rheumatic diseases. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Pollock JI (2005).
Two controlled trials of supplementary feeding of British school children in the 1920s. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Hemminki E (2005).
Commentary on an early placebo controlled trial in Finland. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Donaldson IML (2005).
Mesmer’s 1780 proposal for a controlled trial to test his method of treatment using ‘Animal Magnetism’. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Chalmers I (2006).
Archie Cochrane (1909-1988). JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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John Crofton (1912-2009). JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Davey Smith G (2006).
Capitalising on Mendelian randomization to assess the effects of treatments. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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McPherson K, Bunker JP (2006).
Costs, risks and benefits of surgery: a milestone in the development of health services research. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Vessey MP (2006).
Learning how to control biases in studies to identify adverse effects of drugs. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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The Kendrick-Eldering-(Frost) pertussis vaccine field trial. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Why the MRC randomized trials of whooping cough (pertussis) vaccines remain important more than half a century after they were done. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Stolberg M (2006).
Inventing the randomized double-blind trial: The Nürnberg salt test of 1835. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Joseph Goldberger’s research on the prevention of pellagra. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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James Angus Doull and the well-controlled common cold. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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A puzzling omission in a great medical textbook edited by a pioneer of controlled trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Use of rotation to allocate patients to homeopathic or regular medical services in Cook County Hospital, Chicago, 1882. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Lucy Wills (1888-1964), the life and research of an adventurous independent woman. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Jesse Bullowa, specific treatment for pneumonia, and the development of the controlled clinical trial. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Learning how to control biases in studies to identify adverse effects of drugs: a brief personal history. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Donald Darnley Reid (1914-1977). JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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A 1955 clinical trial report that changed my career. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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19th century controlled trials to test whether belladonna prevents scarlet fever. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Randomization for concealment. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Wessely S (2009).
Surgery for the treatment of psychiatric illness: the need to test untested theories. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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How should one analyse and interpret clinical trials in which patients don’t take the treatments assigned to them? JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Martin Arrowsmith’s clinical trial: scientific precision and heroic medicine. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Joseph Asbury Bell and the birth of randomized trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Commentary on Rapport général sur les prix décernés en 1862. Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale de Médecine XXVI, Paris: Ballière, p xxii-xxxv. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Chalmers I (2010).
Why the 1948 MRC trial of streptomycin used treatment allocation based on random numbers. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Dickersin K, Chalmers I (2010).
Recognising, investigating and dealing with incomplete and biased reporting of clinical research: from Francis Bacon to the World Health Organisation. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Chalmers I (2010).
Joseph Asbury Bell (1904-1968). JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Tröhler U (2010).
Adolf Bingel’s blinded, controlled comparison of different anti-diphtheritic sera in 1918. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Edwards M (2010).
Dora Colebrook and the evaluation of light therapy. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Gluud C (2010).
Danish contributions to the evaluation of serum therapy for diphtheria in the 1890s. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Tröhler U (2010).
Emil Theodor Kocher (1841-1917). JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Podolsky SH, Davey Smith G (2011).
Park’s story and Winters’ tale: alternate allocation clinical trials in turn of the Century America. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Ferroni E, Jefferson T, Gachelin G (2011).
Angelo Celli and research on the prevention of malaria in Italy a century ago. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Kaptchuk TJ (2011).
A brief history of the evolution of methods to control observer biases in tests of treatments. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Chalmers I, Dukan E, Podolsky SH, Davey Smith G (2011).
The advent of fair treatment allocation schedules in clinical trials during the 19th and early 20th centuries. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Gartlehner G, Stepper K (2011).
Julius Wagner-Jauregg: pyrotherapy, Simultanmethode, and ‘racial hygiene’. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Farewell V, Johnson A† (2011).
The origins of Austin Bradford Hill’s classic textbook of medical statistics. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Marušić A, Fatović-Ferenčić S (2012).
Adoption of the double dummy trial design to reduce observer bias in testing treatments. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Vandenbroucke JP (2012).
Adolphe Vorderman’s 1897 study on beriberi: an example of scrupulous efforts to avoid bias. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Mann H, Djulbegovic B (2012).
Comparator bias: why comparisons must address genuine uncertainties. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Donaldson IML (2013).
Francis Bacon’s comments on the power of negative observations in his Novum Organum, first published in 1620. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Loudon I (2013).
Ignaz Phillip Semmelweis’ studies of death in childbirth. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Chalmers I (2013).
UK Medical Research Council and multicentre clinical trials: from a damning report to international recognition. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Ramanna M (2014).
Nasarwanji Hormusji Choksy (1861-1939), a pioneer of controlled clinical trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Dean ME (2014).
The mustard gas experiments done by the British Homoeopathic Society for the Ministry of Home Security, 1941-42. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Milne I, Chalmers I (2014).
Alexander Lesassier Hamilton’s 1816 report of a controlled trial of bloodletting. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Dickersin K, Chalmers F (2014).
Thomas C Chalmers (1917-1995): a pioneer of randomized clinical trials and systematic reviews. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Hampton J (2015).
Therapeutic fashion and publication bias: the case of anti-arrhythmic drugs in heart attack. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Moberg J, Kramer M (2015).
A brief history of the cluster randomized trial design. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Sackett DL† (2015).
Why did I become a clinician-trialist? JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Toth B (2015).
Why the MRC Therapeutic Trials Committee didn’t introduce controlled clinical trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Schlesselman JJ (2015).
Jerome Cornfield’s Bayesian approach to assessing interim results in clinical trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Wager E (2015).
Good Publication Practice 3: reflections on becoming a guideline grandmother. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Dean ME (2015).
Selective suppression by the medical establishment of unwelcome research findings: The cholera treatment evaluation by the General Board of Health, London 1854. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Howick J (2016).
Aulus Cornelius Celsus and ‘empirical’ and ‘dogmatic’ medicine JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Gachelin G, Garner P, Ferroni E, Tröhler U, Chalmers I (2016).
Evaluating Cinchona bark and quinine for treating and preventing malaria. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Peto J (2016).
Reflections on the importance of strict adherence to treatment protocols: acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children in the 1970s in the US and the UK. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Peto R (2016).
Reflections on the design and analysis of clinical trials and meta-analyses in the 1970s and 1980s. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Donaldson IML (2016).
Antoine de Lavoisier’s role in designing a single-blind trial to assess whether ‘Animal Magnetism’ exists. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Zwarenstein M (2016).
‘Pragmatic’ and ‘Explanatory’ attitudes to randomized trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Senn SJ (2017).
Cushny and Peebles, optical isomers, and the birth of modern statistics. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Scadding JW (2017).
John Guyett Scadding’s scepticism and pragmatism in addressing treatment uncertainties in clinical practice. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Mirza RD, Punja S, Vohra S, Guyatt G (2017).
The history and development of N of 1 trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Altman DG† (2017).
Donald Mainland: anatomist, educator, thinker, medical statistician, trialist, rheumatologist. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Pollock JI (2017).
A controlled trial using a factorial design reported in 1946. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Altman DG† (2017).
Avoiding bias in trials in which allocation ratio is varied. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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La Rochelle P (2017).
Using randomized, double-blind, n-of-1 trials of food challenge to diagnose food allergy and assess the effectiveness of food allergen avoidance. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Bailey R, Howick J (2018).
Did John Stuart Mill influence the design of controlled clinical trials? JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Toth B (2018).
Pioneering controlled trials of treatments for erysipelas and pneumonia in Glasgow, 1936-47. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Altman DG†, Grimes DA, Moher D, Hayes RJ (2018).
‘Allocation concealment’: the evolution and adoption of a methodological term. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Garattini S (2018).
Italian controlled trials to assess prevention and treatment of malaria, 1900-1930s. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Tognoni G, Franzosi MG, Garattini S (2018).
Embedding patient- and public health-oriented research in a national health service: the GISSI experience. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Bird A (2018).
James Jurin and the avoidance of bias in collecting and assessing evidence on the effects of variolation. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Marson Smith P, Colquhoun D, Chalmers I (2019).
John Henry Gaddum’s 1940 guidance on controlled clinical trials JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Meinert C† (2019).
The trials and tribulations of the University Group Diabetes Program: lessons and reflections. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Johnson A† (2019).
Textbooks and other publications on controlled clinical trials, 1948 to 1983. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Bishop D, Gill E (2019).
Robert Boyle on the importance of reporting and replicating experiments. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Jefferson T (2019).
Sponsorship bias in clinical trials – growing menace or dawning realisation? JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Tröhler U (2020)
Probabilistic thinking and the evaluation of therapies, 1700-1900. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Welsh BC, Podolsky SH, Zane SN (2020).
Between medicine and criminology: Richard Cabot’s contribution to the design of experimental evaluations of social interventions in the late 1930s. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Glasziou PP, Tikkinen KAO (2021).
The RECOVERY trial platform: a milestone in the development and execution of treatment evaluation during an epidemic. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Clarke M (2021).
The true meaning of DICE: Don’t Ignore Chance Effects JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Senn SJ, Chalmers I (2021).
Giving and taking: ethical treatment assignment in controlled trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Brinkmann R, Podolsky SH (2021).
The ‘Personal Equation’ as observer bias, and proposed methods to contain it in Anglo-American medicine. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Gøtzsche PC (2021).
Citation bias: questionable research practice or scientific misconduct? JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Held L, Matthews RAJ (2022).
Paradigm lost: Carl Liebermeister and the development of modern medical statistics. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Pound P (2022).
The role of systematic reviews in identifying the limitations of preclinical animal research, 2000 – 2022. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Podolsky SH (2022).
The (Harry) Gold Standard: angina, suggestion, and the path to the “double-blind” test and Clinical Pharmacology. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Chalmers I, Matthews R, Glasziou P, Boutron I, Armitage P† (2023).
Analysis of clinical trial by Treatment Allocated or by Treatment Received? Applying ‘the intention-to-treat principle’. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Nylenna, M (2023).
Paul Owren, Christopher Bjerkelund and the dawn of controlled trials in Norway. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Kirakosian R, Möllenbrink L, Zamore G, Kaptchuk TJ, Jensen K (2023).
Heresy, witchcraft, Jean Gerson, scepticism, and the use of placebo controls. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Glasziou P, Matthews R, Boutron I, Chalmers I, Armitage P† (2023)
The differences and overlaps between ‘explanatory’ and ‘pragmatic’ controlled trials: a historical perspective. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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