Observer bias

Biased treatment outcome assessment can result if people receiving or providing care, or others assessing treatment outcomes, know which participants have received which treatments. It is sometimes possible to conceal which treatments have been received by using placebos and in other ways.  See also Double Dummy.


JLL Essay
2.4 The need to avoid differences in the way treatment outcomes are assessed

Following up everyone in treatment comparisons

 

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Toth B (1998).
Clinical trials in British medicine 1858 – 1948, with special reference to the development of the randomised controlled trial. Philosophy Thesis, University of Bristol. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Scadding JG (2002).
Reflections on my studies of the effects of sulphonamide drugs in bacillary dysentery in Egypt, 1943-1944. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Tröhler U (2003).
Adolf Bingel (1879-1953), a member of the last generation of general internal physicians in Germany. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Clarke M (2004).
The 1944 patulin trial of the British Medical Research Council: an example of how concerted common purpose can get reliable answers to important questions very quickly. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Kaptchuk TJ (2004).
Early use of blind assessment in a homeopathic scientific experiment. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Hemminki E (2005).
Commentary on an early placebo controlled trial in Finland. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Spanager L (2005).
Jansen’s 1910 use of a single blind experiment to assess the effects of radioactive water on rheumatic diseases. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Stolberg M (2006).
Inventing the randomized double-blind trial: The Nürnberg salt test of 1835. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Furberg CD (2009).
How should one analyse and interpret clinical trials in which patients don’t take the treatments assigned to them? JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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JLL Bulletin Editors (2010).
Commentary on Rapport général sur les prix décernés en 1862. Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale de Médecine XXVI, Paris: Ballière, p xxii-xxxv. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Tröhler U (2010).
Adolf Bingel’s blinded, controlled comparison of different anti-diphtheritic sera in 1918. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Kaptchuk TJ (2011).
A brief history of the evolution of methods to control observer biases in tests of treatments. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Marušić A, Fatović-Ferenčić S (2012).
Adoption of the double dummy trial design to reduce observer bias in testing treatments. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Vandenbroucke JP (2012).
Adolphe Vorderman’s 1897 study on beriberi: an example of scrupulous efforts to avoid bias. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Toth B (2015).
Why the MRC Therapeutic Trials Committee didn’t introduce controlled clinical trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Donaldson IML (2016).
Antoine de Lavoisier’s role in designing a single-blind trial to assess whether ‘Animal Magnetism’ exists. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Zwarenstein M (2016).
‘Pragmatic’ and ‘Explanatory’ attitudes to randomized trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Senn SJ (2017).
Cushny and Peebles, optical isomers, and the birth of modern statistics. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Scadding JW (2017).
John Guyett Scadding’s scepticism and pragmatism in addressing treatment uncertainties in clinical practice. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Mirza RD, Punja S, Vohra S, Guyatt G (2017).
The history and development of N of 1 trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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La Rochelle P (2017).
Using randomized, double-blind, n-of-1 trials of food challenge to diagnose food allergy and assess the effectiveness of food allergen avoidance. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Toth B (2018).
Pioneering controlled trials of treatments for erysipelas and pneumonia in Glasgow, 1936-47. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Altman DG†, Grimes DA, Moher D, Hayes RJ (2018).
‘Allocation concealment’: the evolution and adoption of a methodological term. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Marson Smith P, Colquhoun D, Chalmers I (2019).
John Henry Gaddum’s 1940 guidance on controlled clinical trials JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Meinert C† (2019).
The trials and tribulations of the University Group Diabetes Program: lessons and reflections. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Johnson A† (2019).
Textbooks and other publications on controlled clinical trials, 1948 to 1983. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Glasziou PP, Tikkinen KAO (2021).
The RECOVERY trial platform: a milestone in the development and execution of treatment evaluation during an epidemic. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Senn SJ, Chalmers I (2021).
Giving and taking: ethical treatment assignment in controlled trials. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Brinkmann R, Podolsky SH (2021).
The ‘Personal Equation’ as observer bias, and proposed methods to contain it in Anglo-American medicine. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Pound P (2022).
The role of systematic reviews in identifying the limitations of preclinical animal research, 2000 – 2022. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Podolsky SH (2022).
The (Harry) Gold Standard: angina, suggestion, and the path to the “double-blind” test and Clinical Pharmacology. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Kirakosian R, Möllenbrink L, Zamore G, Kaptchuk TJ, Jensen K (2023).
Heresy, witchcraft, Jean Gerson, scepticism, and the use of placebo controls. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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Glasziou P, Matthews R, Boutron I, Chalmers I, Armitage P† (2023)
The differences and overlaps between ‘explanatory’ and ‘pragmatic’ controlled trials: a historical perspective. JLL Bulletin: Commentaries on the history of treatment evaluation.

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