Reporting bias

Biased reporting of research occurs when the direction or statistical significance of results influences whether and how research is reported.

86 RECORDS
14 ARTICLES

The need to address treatment uncertainties

Principles of Testing

Treatment comparisons are essential

Treatment comparisons must be fair

Biases

Double dummy

The play of chance

Bringing it all together for the benefit of patients and the public

James Lind LibraryIllustrating the development of fair tests of treatments in health care

Reporting bias

Biased reporting of research occurs when the direction or statistical significance of results influences whether and how research is reported.

SORT date ▼ author

86 RECORDS

14 ARTICLES

Showell MG, Cole S, Clarke MJ, DeVito NJ, Farquhar C, Jordan V (2024) Time to publication for results of clinical trials. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (11): MR000011

Bradley SH, DeVito NJ, Lloyd KE, Richards GC, Rombey T, Wayant C, Gill PJ (2020) Reducing bias and improving transparency in medical research: a critical overview of the problems, progress and suggested next steps. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 113:433-443.

Scherer RW, Meerpohl JJ, Pfeifer N, Schmucker C, Schwarzer G, von Elm E (2018) Full publication of results initially presented in abstracts. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; (11): MR000005.

de Vries YA, Roest AM, de Jonge P, Cuijpers P, Munafò MR, Bastiaansen JA (2018) The cumulative effect of reporting and citation biases on the apparent efficacy of treatments: the case of depression. Psychological Medicine 48:2453-2455.

Chalmers I (2017) The evolution of fair tests of treatments over two millennia: a 23 minute audio commentary. Edited by Hamish Chalmers, using unbroadcast recordings made by Freakonomics Radio, with permission.

Chiu K, Grundy Q, Bero L (2017) `Spin' in published biomedical literature: A methodological systematic review. PLoS Biol 15: e2002173.

Misemer BS, Platts-Mills TF, Jones CW (2016) Citation bias favoring positive clinical trials of thrombolytics for acute ischemic stroke: a cross-sectional analysis. Trials 17:473.

Yavchitz A, Ravaud P, Altman DG, Moher D, Hrobjartsson A, Lasserson T, Boutron I (2016) A new classification of spin in systematic reviews and meta-analyses was developed and ranked according to the severity. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 75:56-65.

Green SB (2015) Can animal data translate to innovations necessary for a new era of patient-centred and individualised healthcare? Bias in preclinical animal research. BMC Medical Ethics 16:53. DOI 10.1186/s12910-015-0043-7.

Peers IS, South MC, Ceuppens PR, Bright JD, Pilling E (2014) Can you trust your animal study data? Nature reviews. Drug discovery. 13. 10.1038/nrd4090-c1.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Kirkham J, Dwan K, Kramer S, Green S, Forbes A (2014) Bias due to selective inclusion and reporting of outcomes and analyses in systematic reviews of randomised trials of healthcare interventions. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;(10):MR000035.

Boutron I, Altman DG, Hopewell S, Vera-Badillo F, Tannock I, Ravaud P (2014) Impact of Spin in the Abstracts of Articles Reporting Results of Randomized Controlled Trials in the Field of Cancer: The SPIIN Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology 32:4120-4126.

Sena ES, Currie GL, McCann SK, Macleod MR, Howells DW (2014) Systematic reviews and meta-analysis of preclinical studies: why perform them and how to appraise them critically. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 34:737-742. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2014.28

Clarke M, Hopewell S (2013) Many reports of randomised trials still don’t begin or end with a systematic review of the relevant evidence. Journal of the Bahrain Medical Society 24: 145-8.

Turner EH, Knoepflmacher D, Shapley L (2012) Publication bias in antipsychotic trials: an analysis of efficacy comparing the published literature to the US Food and Drug Administration database. PLoS Med 9(3):e1001189.

Goldacre B (2012) Bad Pharma: how drug companies mislead doctors and harm patients. London: Fourth Estate.

Martic-Kehl MI,Schibli R, Schubiger PA (2012) Can animal data predict human outcome? Problems and pitfalls of translational animal research. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging 39:1492–1496. 10.1007/s00259-012-2175-z

Ioannidis JP (2012) Extrapolating from animals to humans. Sci Transl Med 4(151):151ps15. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3004631. PMID: 22972841.

De Vries RB, Hooijmans CR, Tillema A, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M (2011) A search filter for increasing the retrieval of animal studies in Embase. Laboratory Animals 45:268-70.

Prinz F, Schlange T, Asadullah K (2011) Believe it or not: how much can we rely on published data on potential drug targets? Nat Rev Drug Discov 10:712.

Emerson GB, Warme WJ, Wolf FM, Heckman JD, Brand RA, Leopold SS (2010) Testing for the presence of positive-outcome bias in peer review. Archives of Internal Medicine 170:1934-1939.

Clarke M, Hopewell S, Chalmers I (2010) Clinical trials should begin and end with systematic reviews of relevant evidence: 12 years and waiting. Lancet 376: 20-1.

Sena ES, van der Worp HB, Bath PMW, Howells DW, Macleod MR (2010) Publication bias in reports of animal Stroke studies leads to major overstatement of efficacy. PLoS Biol 8(3): e1000344. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000344

Sena ES, Briscoe CL, Howells DW, Donnan GA, Sandercock PA, Macleod MR (2010) Factors affecting the apparent efficacy and safety of tissue plasminogen activator in thrombotic occlusion models of stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 30:1905-13.

Greenberg SA (2009) How citation distortions create unfounded authority: analysis of a citation network. BMJ 339:b2680.

Rising K, Bacchetti P, Bero L (2008) Reporting bias in drug trials submitted to the Food and Drug Administration: review of publication and presentation. PLoS Med 5(11): e217. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050217

Scott S, Kranz JE, Cole J, Lincecum JM, Thompson K, Kelly N, Bostrom A, Theodoss J, Al-Nakhala BM, Vieira FG, Ramasubbu J, Heywood JA (2008) Design, power, and interpretation of studies in the standard murine model of ALS. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 9:4-15. DOI: 10.1080/17482960701856300.

Clarke M, Hopewell S, Chalmers I (2007) Reports of clinical trials should begin and end with up-to-date systematic reviews of other relevant evidence: a status report. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 100: 187-90.

O'Collins VE, Macleod MR, Donnan GA, Horky LL, van der Worp BH, Howells DW (2006) 1,026 experimental treatments in acute stroke. Annals of Neurology 59:467-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.20741

Weatherall D (2006) The use of non-human primates in research. A working group report. https://mrc.ukri.org/documents/pdf/the-use-of-non-human-primates-in-research/

Bailey J (2005) Non-human primates in medical research and drug development: a critical review. Biogenic Amines 19:235–255.

Chan A-W, Hròbjartsson A, Haahr M, Gøtzsche PC, Altman DG (2004) Empirical evidence for selective reporting of outcomes in randomized trials: Comparison of protocols to publications. JAMA 291:2457-2465.

Chan AW, Krleža-Jerić K, Schmid I, Altman D (2004) Outcome reporting bias in randomized trials funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2004;171:735-40.

Carlsson HE, Schapiro SJ, Farah I, Hau J (2004) Use of primates in research: a global overview. American Journal of Primatology 63:225-37.

Lexchin J, Bero LA, Djulbegovic B, Clark O (2003) Pharmaceutical industry sponsorship and research outcome and quality: systematic review. BMJ 326:1167-70.

Melander H, Ahlqvist-Rastad J, Meijer G, Beermann B (2003) Evidence b(i)ased medicine - selective reporting from studies sponsored by pharmaceutical industry: review of studies in new drug applications. BMJ 326:1171-3.

Wager E, Field EA, Grossman L (2003) Good Publication Practice for pharmaceutical companies. Current Medical Research and Opinion 19:149-54.

Hahn S, Williamson PR, Hutton JL (2002) Investigation of within-study selective reporting in clinical research: follow-up of applications submitted to a local research ethics committee. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 8:353-359.

Clarke M, Alderson P, Chalmers I (2002) Discussion sections in reports of controlled trials published in general medical journals. JAMA 287: 2799-801.

Djulbegovic B, Lacevic M, Cantor A, Fields KK, Bennett CL, Adams JR, Kuderer NM, Lyman GH (2000) The uncertainty principle and industry-sponsored research. Lancet 356:635-638.

Smith R, Roberts I (1997) An amnesty for unpublished trials. BMJ 315:622.

Cowley AJ, Skene A, Stainer, Hampton JR (1993) The effect of lorcainide on arrhythmias and survival in patients with acute myocardial infarction. International Journal of Cardiology 40:161-166.

Dickersin K, Min YI, Meinert CL (1992) Factors influencing publication of research results. Follow-up of applications submitted to two institutional review boards. JAMA 267:374-8.

Easterbrook PJ, Berlin JA, Gopalan R, Matthews DR (1991) Publication bias in clinical research. Lancet 37:867-72.

Gøtzsche PC (1989) Methodology and overt and hidden bias in reports of 196 double-blind trials of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in rheumatoid arthritis. Control Clinical Trials 10:31-56.

Hetherington J, Dickersin K, Chalmers I, Meinert CL (1989) Retrospective and prospective identification of unpublished controlled trials: lessons from a survey of obstetricians and pediatricians. Pediatrics 84(2):374-80.

Vandenbroucke JP (1988) Passive smoking and lung cancer: a publication bias? BMJ 296:391-392.

Begg CB, Berlin JA (1988) Publication bias: a problem in interpreting medical data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A 151:419-463.

Dickersin K (1988) Report from the panel on the case for registers of clinical trials at the eighth annual meeting of the Society for Clinical Trials. Control Clinical Trials 9:76-81.

Dickersin K, Chan S, Chalmers TC, Sacks HS, Smith H (1987) Publication bias and clinical trials. Controlled Clin Trials 8:343-53.

Gøtzsche PC (1987) Reference bias in reports of drug trials. BMJ 295:654-656.

Simes RJ (1986) Publication bias: the case for an international registry of clinical trials. Journal of Clinical Oncology 4:1529-41.

Davidson RA (1986) Source of funding and outcome of clinical trials. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1:156-158.

Light RJ, Pillemer DB (1984) Summing up. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Light RJ (1983) Evaluation Studies Review Annual Vol 8. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.

Altman DG (1983) Evaluating a series of clinical trials of the same treatment. Unpublished 40-page development of the author’s 7-page summary (Altman 1981) of his presentation at a meeting of the International Epidemiological Association in Edinburgh, August 1981.

Altman DG (1981) Evaluating a series of clinical trials of the same treatment. Unpublished 7-page summary of the author’s presentation at a meeting of the International Epidemiological Association in Edinburgh, August 1981.

Hemminki E (1980) Study of information submitted by drug companies to licensing authorities. BMJ 280:833-6.

Dudley HAF (1978) Surgical research: master or servant. The American Journal of Surgery 135:458-460.

Mahoney MJ (1977) Publication prejudices: An experimental study of confirmatory bias in the peer review system. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1:161-75.

Garvey WD, Lin N, Nelson CE (1970) Communication in the physical and social sciences: the process of disseminating and assimilating information differ in these two groups of science. Science 170:1166-1173.

Hudson J (pseudonym for Crichton M) (1968) A case of need. The World Publishing Company, New York.

Chalmers TC, Koff RS, Grady GF (1965) A note on fatality in serum hepatitis. Gastroenterology 49:22–26.

Smart RG (1964) The importance of negative results in psychological research. Canadian Psychologist 5:225-232.

Cohen J (1962) The statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: a review. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 65:145-153.

Sterling TD (1959) Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance – or vice versa. Journal of the American Statistical Association 54:30-34.

Kety S (1959) Comment. In: Cole JO, Gerard RW (eds). Psychopharmacology. Problems in Evaluation. National Academy of Sciences, Publication 583, Washington DC, p 651-652.

Hill AB (1956) Discussion of a paper by DJ Finney. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A 119:19-20.

Einstein A (1954) Statement for a conference of the Emergency Civil Liberties Committee, 3 March. Albert Einstein Archives, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 28-1025.

Pratt JG, Rhine JB, Smith BM, Stuart CE, Greenwood JA (1940) Extra-sensory perception after sixty years: a critical appraisal of the research in extra-sensory perception. New York: Henry Holt.

Earp JR (1927) The need for reporting negative results. JAMA 88:119.

Sollmann T (1917) The crucial test of therapeutic evidence. JAMA 69:198-199.

Wesselhoeft W (1915) Hospital Efficiency from the Standpoint of Hospital Trustees. The New England Journal of Medicine 172:778. 10.1056/NEJM191505271722104

Editorial (1909) The reporting of unsuccessful cases. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 161:263-263.

James Lind Library
Illustrating the development of fair tests of treatments in health care

Showell MG, Cole S, Clarke MJ, DeVito NJ, Farquhar C, Jordan V (2024)
Time to publication for results of clinical trials. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (11): MR000011

Bradley SH, DeVito NJ, Lloyd KE, Richards GC, Rombey T, Wayant C, Gill PJ (2020)
Reducing bias and improving transparency in medical research: a critical overview of the problems, progress and suggested next steps. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 113:433-443.

Scherer RW, Meerpohl JJ, Pfeifer N, Schmucker C, Schwarzer G, von Elm E (2018)
Full publication of results initially presented in abstracts. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; (11): MR000005.

de Vries YA, Roest AM, de Jonge P, Cuijpers P, Munafò MR, Bastiaansen JA (2018)
The cumulative effect of reporting and citation biases on the apparent efficacy of treatments: the case of depression. Psychological Medicine 48:2453-2455.

Chalmers I (2017)
The evolution of fair tests of treatments over two millennia: a 23 minute audio commentary. Edited by Hamish Chalmers, using unbroadcast recordings made by Freakonomics Radio, with permission.

Chiu K, Grundy Q, Bero L (2017)
`Spin' in published biomedical literature: A methodological systematic review. PLoS Biol 15: e2002173.

Misemer BS, Platts-Mills TF, Jones CW (2016)
Citation bias favoring positive clinical trials of thrombolytics for acute ischemic stroke: a cross-sectional analysis. Trials 17:473.

Yavchitz A, Ravaud P, Altman DG, Moher D, Hrobjartsson A, Lasserson T, Boutron I (2016)
A new classification of spin in systematic reviews and meta-analyses was developed and ranked according to the severity. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 75:56-65.

Green SB (2015)
Can animal data translate to innovations necessary for a new era of patient-centred and individualised healthcare? Bias in preclinical animal research. BMC Medical Ethics 16:53. DOI 10.1186/s12910-015-0043-7.

Peers IS, South MC, Ceuppens PR, Bright JD, Pilling E (2014)
Can you trust your animal study data? Nature reviews. Drug discovery. 13. 10.1038/nrd4090-c1.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Kirkham J, Dwan K, Kramer S, Green S, Forbes A (2014)
Bias due to selective inclusion and reporting of outcomes and analyses in systematic reviews of randomised trials of healthcare interventions. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;(10):MR000035.

Boutron I, Altman DG, Hopewell S, Vera-Badillo F, Tannock I, Ravaud P (2014)
Impact of Spin in the Abstracts of Articles Reporting Results of Randomized Controlled Trials in the Field of Cancer: The SPIIN Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology 32:4120-4126.

Sena ES, Currie GL, McCann SK, Macleod MR, Howells DW (2014)
Systematic reviews and meta-analysis of preclinical studies: why perform them and how to appraise them critically. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 34:737-742. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2014.28

Clarke M, Hopewell S (2013)
Many reports of randomised trials still don’t begin or end with a systematic review of the relevant evidence. Journal of the Bahrain Medical Society 24: 145-8.

Turner EH, Knoepflmacher D, Shapley L (2012)
Publication bias in antipsychotic trials: an analysis of efficacy comparing the published literature to the US Food and Drug Administration database. PLoS Med 9(3):e1001189.

Goldacre B (2012)
Bad Pharma: how drug companies mislead doctors and harm patients. London: Fourth Estate.

Martic-Kehl MI,Schibli R, Schubiger PA (2012)
Can animal data predict human outcome? Problems and pitfalls of translational animal research. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging 39:1492–1496. 10.1007/s00259-012-2175-z

Ioannidis JP (2012)
Extrapolating from animals to humans. Sci Transl Med 4(151):151ps15. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3004631. PMID: 22972841.

De Vries RB, Hooijmans CR, Tillema A, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M (2011)
A search filter for increasing the retrieval of animal studies in Embase. Laboratory Animals 45:268-70.

Prinz F, Schlange T, Asadullah K (2011)
Believe it or not: how much can we rely on published data on potential drug targets? Nat Rev Drug Discov 10:712.

Emerson GB, Warme WJ, Wolf FM, Heckman JD, Brand RA, Leopold SS (2010)
Testing for the presence of positive-outcome bias in peer review. Archives of Internal Medicine 170:1934-1939.

Clarke M, Hopewell S, Chalmers I (2010)
Clinical trials should begin and end with systematic reviews of relevant evidence: 12 years and waiting. Lancet 376: 20-1.

Sena ES, van der Worp HB, Bath PMW, Howells DW, Macleod MR (2010)
Publication bias in reports of animal Stroke studies leads to major overstatement of efficacy. PLoS Biol 8(3): e1000344. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000344

Sena ES, Briscoe CL, Howells DW, Donnan GA, Sandercock PA, Macleod MR (2010)
Factors affecting the apparent efficacy and safety of tissue plasminogen activator in thrombotic occlusion models of stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 30:1905-13.

Greenberg SA (2009)
How citation distortions create unfounded authority: analysis of a citation network. BMJ 339:b2680.

Rising K, Bacchetti P, Bero L (2008)
Reporting bias in drug trials submitted to the Food and Drug Administration: review of publication and presentation. PLoS Med 5(11): e217. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050217

Scott S, Kranz JE, Cole J, Lincecum JM, Thompson K, Kelly N, Bostrom A, Theodoss J, Al-Nakhala BM, Vieira FG, Ramasubbu J, Heywood JA (2008)
Design, power, and interpretation of studies in the standard murine model of ALS. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 9:4-15. DOI: 10.1080/17482960701856300.

Clarke M, Hopewell S, Chalmers I (2007)
Reports of clinical trials should begin and end with up-to-date systematic reviews of other relevant evidence: a status report. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 100: 187-90.

O'Collins VE, Macleod MR, Donnan GA, Horky LL, van der Worp BH, Howells DW (2006)
1,026 experimental treatments in acute stroke. Annals of Neurology 59:467-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.20741

Weatherall D (2006)
The use of non-human primates in research. A working group report. https://mrc.ukri.org/documents/pdf/the-use-of-non-human-primates-in-research/

Bailey J (2005)
Non-human primates in medical research and drug development: a critical review. Biogenic Amines 19:235–255.

Chan A-W, Hròbjartsson A, Haahr M, Gøtzsche PC, Altman DG (2004)
Empirical evidence for selective reporting of outcomes in randomized trials: Comparison of protocols to publications. JAMA 291:2457-2465.

Chan AW, Krleža-Jerić K, Schmid I, Altman D (2004)
Outcome reporting bias in randomized trials funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2004;171:735-40.

Carlsson HE, Schapiro SJ, Farah I, Hau J (2004)
Use of primates in research: a global overview. American Journal of Primatology 63:225-37.

Lexchin J, Bero LA, Djulbegovic B, Clark O (2003)
Pharmaceutical industry sponsorship and research outcome and quality: systematic review. BMJ 326:1167-70.

Melander H, Ahlqvist-Rastad J, Meijer G, Beermann B (2003)
Evidence b(i)ased medicine - selective reporting from studies sponsored by pharmaceutical industry: review of studies in new drug applications. BMJ 326:1171-3.

Wager E, Field EA, Grossman L (2003)
Good Publication Practice for pharmaceutical companies. Current Medical Research and Opinion 19:149-54.

Hahn S, Williamson PR, Hutton JL (2002)
Investigation of within-study selective reporting in clinical research: follow-up of applications submitted to a local research ethics committee. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 8:353-359.

Clarke M, Alderson P, Chalmers I (2002)
Discussion sections in reports of controlled trials published in general medical journals. JAMA 287: 2799-801.

Djulbegovic B, Lacevic M, Cantor A, Fields KK, Bennett CL, Adams JR, Kuderer NM, Lyman GH (2000)
The uncertainty principle and industry-sponsored research. Lancet 356:635-638.

Smith R, Roberts I (1997)
An amnesty for unpublished trials. BMJ 315:622.

Cowley AJ, Skene A, Stainer, Hampton JR (1993)
The effect of lorcainide on arrhythmias and survival in patients with acute myocardial infarction. International Journal of Cardiology 40:161-166.

Dickersin K, Min YI, Meinert CL (1992)
Factors influencing publication of research results. Follow-up of applications submitted to two institutional review boards. JAMA 267:374-8.

Easterbrook PJ, Berlin JA, Gopalan R, Matthews DR (1991)
Publication bias in clinical research. Lancet 37:867-72.

Gøtzsche PC (1989)
Methodology and overt and hidden bias in reports of 196 double-blind trials of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in rheumatoid arthritis. Control Clinical Trials 10:31-56.

Hetherington J, Dickersin K, Chalmers I, Meinert CL (1989)
Retrospective and prospective identification of unpublished controlled trials: lessons from a survey of obstetricians and pediatricians. Pediatrics 84(2):374-80.

Vandenbroucke JP (1988)
Passive smoking and lung cancer: a publication bias? BMJ 296:391-392.

Begg CB, Berlin JA (1988)
Publication bias: a problem in interpreting medical data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A 151:419-463.

Dickersin K (1988)
Report from the panel on the case for registers of clinical trials at the eighth annual meeting of the Society for Clinical Trials. Control Clinical Trials 9:76-81.

Dickersin K, Chan S, Chalmers TC, Sacks HS, Smith H (1987)
Publication bias and clinical trials. Controlled Clin Trials 8:343-53.

Gøtzsche PC (1987)
Reference bias in reports of drug trials. BMJ 295:654-656.

Simes RJ (1986)
Publication bias: the case for an international registry of clinical trials. Journal of Clinical Oncology 4:1529-41.

Davidson RA (1986)
Source of funding and outcome of clinical trials. Journal of General Internal Medicine 1:156-158.

Light RJ, Pillemer DB (1984)
Summing up. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Light RJ (1983)
Evaluation Studies Review Annual Vol 8. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.

Altman DG (1983)
Evaluating a series of clinical trials of the same treatment. Unpublished 40-page development of the author’s 7-page summary (Altman 1981) of his presentation at a meeting of the International Epidemiological Association in Edinburgh, August 1981.

Altman DG (1981)
Evaluating a series of clinical trials of the same treatment. Unpublished 7-page summary of the author’s presentation at a meeting of the International Epidemiological Association in Edinburgh, August 1981.

Hemminki E (1980)
Study of information submitted by drug companies to licensing authorities. BMJ 280:833-6.

Dudley HAF (1978)
Surgical research: master or servant. The American Journal of Surgery 135:458-460.

Mahoney MJ (1977)
Publication prejudices: An experimental study of confirmatory bias in the peer review system. Cognitive Therapy and Research 1:161-75.

Garvey WD, Lin N, Nelson CE (1970)
Communication in the physical and social sciences: the process of disseminating and assimilating information differ in these two groups of science. Science 170:1166-1173.

Hudson J (pseudonym for Crichton M) (1968)
A case of need. The World Publishing Company, New York.

Chalmers TC, Koff RS, Grady GF (1965)
A note on fatality in serum hepatitis. Gastroenterology 49:22–26.

Smart RG (1964)
The importance of negative results in psychological research. Canadian Psychologist 5:225-232.

Cohen J (1962)
The statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: a review. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 65:145-153.

Sterling TD (1959)
Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance – or vice versa. Journal of the American Statistical Association 54:30-34.

Kety S (1959)
Comment. In: Cole JO, Gerard RW (eds). Psychopharmacology. Problems in Evaluation. National Academy of Sciences, Publication 583, Washington DC, p 651-652.

Hill AB (1956)
Discussion of a paper by DJ Finney. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A 119:19-20.

Einstein A (1954)
Statement for a conference of the Emergency Civil Liberties Committee, 3 March. Albert Einstein Archives, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 28-1025.

Pratt JG, Rhine JB, Smith BM, Stuart CE, Greenwood JA (1940)
Extra-sensory perception after sixty years: a critical appraisal of the research in extra-sensory perception. New York: Henry Holt.

Earp JR (1927)
The need for reporting negative results. JAMA 88:119.

Sollmann T (1917)
The crucial test of therapeutic evidence. JAMA 69:198-199.

Wesselhoeft W (1915)
Hospital Efficiency from the Standpoint of Hospital Trustees. The New England Journal of Medicine 172:778. 10.1056/NEJM191505271722104

Editorial (1909)
The reporting of unsuccessful cases. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 161:263-263.

Bennett JH (1865)
The restorative treatment of pneumonia. Edinburgh, AC Black.

Holmes OW (1861)
Currents and countercurrents in medical science with other addresses and essays. Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1861.

Carlisle A (1839)
On the production of representations of objects by the action of light. Mechanics Journal p 329.

Haygarth J (1800)
Of the imagination, as a cause and as a cure of disorders of the body: exemplified by fictitious tractors, and epidemical convulsions. Bath: R. Crutwell.

Currie J (1797)
Medical reports on the effects of water, cold and warm, as a remedy in fever, and febrile diseases. Liverpool and London: M’Creery and Cadell.