Treatment comparisons must be fair

Untrustworthy treatment comparisons are those in which biases, or the play of chance, or both result in misleading estimates of the effects of treatments. Fair treatment comparisons avoid biases and reduce the effects of the play of chance.

264 RECORDS
44 ARTICLES
2 BLOGS

The need to address treatment uncertainties

Principles of Testing

Treatment comparisons are essential

Treatment comparisons must be fair

Biases

Double dummy

The play of chance

Bringing it all together for the benefit of patients and the public

James Lind LibraryIllustrating the development of fair tests of treatments in health care

Treatment comparisons must be fair

Untrustworthy treatment comparisons are those in which biases, or the play of chance, or both result in misleading estimates of the effects of treatments. Fair treatment comparisons avoid biases and reduce the effects of the play of chance.

SORT date ▼ author

264 RECORDS

44 ARTICLES

2 BLOGS

Turner KM, Huntley A, Yardley T, Dawson S, Dawson S (2024) Defining usual care comparators when designing pragmatic trials of complex health interventions: a methodology review. Trials 25, 117. https://trialsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13063-024-07956-7

RECOVERY Trial Team (2020) Randomized Evaluation of COVID019 Therapy (RECOVERY). RECOVERY Central Coordinating Office, Oxford. www.recoverytrial.net

Bradley SH, DeVito NJ, Lloyd KE, Richards GC, Rombey T, Wayant C, Gill PJ (2020) Reducing bias and improving transparency in medical research: a critical overview of the problems, progress and suggested next steps. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 113:433-443.

Chalmers I (2017) The evolution of fair tests of treatments over two millennia: a 23 minute audio commentary. Edited by Hamish Chalmers, using unbroadcast recordings made by Freakonomics Radio, with permission.

Page MJ, Higgins JPT, Clayton G, Sterne JAC, Hróbjartsson A, Savović J (2016) Empirical Evidence of Study Design Biases in Randomized Trials: Systematic Review of Meta-Epidemiological Studies. PLOS ONE 11(7):e0159267.

Sackett DL (2015) Sackett DL. Interview in 2014 and 2015. Brian Haynes, ed. McMaster University.

Abraha I, Cherubini A, Cozzolino F, De Florio R, Luchetta ML, Rimland JM, Folletti I, Marchesi M, Germani A, Orso M, Eusebi P, Montedori A (2015) Deviation from intention to treat analysis in randomised trials and treatment effect estimates: meta-epidemiological study. BMJ 2015;350:h2445.

Smith V, Clarke M, Devane D, Begley C, Shorter G, Maguire L (2013) SWAT 1: what effects do site visits by the principal investigator have on recruitment in a multicentre randomized trial? Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine 6(3), 136-137 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jebm.12049

Clarke M, Loudon K (2011) Effects on patients of their healthcare practitioner's or institution's participation in clinical trials: a systematic review. Trials 12:16.

Montedori A, Cherubini A, Bonacini MI, Casazza G, Luchetta ML, Duca P, Cozzolino F, Abraha I (2011) Modified versus standard intention-to-treat reporting: Are there differences in methodological quality, sponsorship, and findings in randomised trials? A cross-sectional study. Trials 12:58.

Bassler D, Briel M, Montori VM, Lane M, Glasziou P, Zhou Q, Heels-Ansdell D, Walter SD, Guyatt GH; STOPIT-2 Study Group (2010) Stopping randomized trials early for benefit and estimation of treatment effects: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. JAMA. 303:1180-7.

Kramer MS, Martin RM, Sterne JA, Shapiro S, Mourad D, Platt RW (2009) The double jeopardy of clustered measurement and cluster randomisation. BMJ 339:503-505.

Trotta F, Apolone G, Garattini S, Tafuri G (2008) Stopping a trial early in oncology: for patients or for industry? Annals of Oncology Feb 29; doi:10.1093/annonc/mdn042.

Perel P, Roberts I, Sena E, Wheble P, Briscoe C, Sandercock S, Macleod M, Mignini LE, Jayaram P, Khan KS (2007) Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review. BMJ 334:197-200.

Glasziou P, Chalmers I, Rawlins M, McCulloch P (2007) When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise. BMJ 334: 349-351.

Jones B, Kenward MG (2003) Design and Analysis of Cross-Over-Trials (2nd Ed). London and USA: Chapman and Hall.

Wagner AK, Soumerai SB, Zhang F, Ross-Degnan D (2002) Segmented regression analysis of interrupted time series studies in medication use research. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 27:299–309.

Stangl D, Berry DA (2000) Meta-Analysis in Medicine and Health Policy. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Sutton AJ, Abrams KR, Jones DR, Sheldon T, Song F (2000) Methods for Meta-Analysis in Medical Research. Chichester: Wiley.

Ruiz-Canela M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, de Irala-Estevez J (2000) Intention-to-treat analysis is related to methodological quality. BMJ 320:107-108.

Hollis S, Campbell F (1999) What is meant by intention-to-treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials. BMJ 319:670-674.

Murray DM (1998) Design and Analysis of Group Randomized Trials. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.

Simpson JM, Klar N, Donner A (1995) Accounting for cluster randomization: a review of primary prevention trials, 1990 through 1993. American Journal of Public Health 85:1378-1383.

Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Altman DG, Grimes DA, Doré CJ (1995) The methodologic quality of randomization as assessed from reports of trials in specialist and general medical journals. Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials 4:197.

Hill AB, Hill ID (1991) Differential exclusions. In: Bradford Hill’s Principles of Medical Statistics. 12th edition. London: Edward Arnold. pp 226-228.

Donner A, Brown KS, Brasher P (1990) A methodological review of non-therapeutic intervention trials employing cluster randomization, 1979-1989. International Journal of Epidemiology 19:795-800.

O’Rourke K, Detsky AS (1989) Meta-analysis in medical research: strong encouragement for higher quality in individual research efforts. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42:1021-24.

Pocock SJ, Hughes MD (1989) Practical problems in interim analyses, with particular regard to estimation. Control Clinical Trials10 (4 Suppl):209S-221S.

Jenicek M (1989) Meta-analysis in medicine: where we are and where we want to go. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42:35-44.

ISIS-2 (second International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group (1988) Randomised trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17 187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction: ISIS-2. Lancet 332:349–360.

Chalmers TC (1988) Data analysis for clinical medicine: the quantitative approach to patient care in gastroenterology. Rome: International University Press.

Jenicek M (1987) Méta-analyse en médecine. Évaluation et synthèse de l’information clinique et épidémiologique. [Meta-analysis in medicine: evaluation and synthesis of clinical and epidemiological information] St.Hyacinthe and Paris: EDISEM and Maloine Éditeurs.

Machin D, Campbell MJ (1987) Statistical Tables for the Design of Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell scientific publications.

Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Streptochinasi nell'Infarto Miocardico (GISSI) (1986) Effectiveness of intravenous thrombolytic treatment in acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 1: 397-402.

Peto J, Eden OB, Lilleyman J, Richards S (1986) Improvement in treatments for children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: The Medical Research Council UKALL Trials, 1972-84. Lancet 1:408-411.

Bulpitt CJ (1984) Randomised controlled clinical trials. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Pocock SJ (1983) Clinical trials: a practical approach. Chichester: John Wiley.

Chalmers TC, Smith JH, Blackburn B, Silverman B, Schroeder B, Reitman D, Ambroz A (1981) A method for assessing the quality of a randomized control trial. Controlled Clinical Trials 2: 31-49.

Sackett DL (1979) Bias in analytic research. Journal of Chronic Diseases 32:51-63.

Freiman JA, Chalmers TC, Smith H, Kuebler RR (1978) The importance of beta, the type II error and sample size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial. Survey of 71 "negative" trials. New England Journal of Medicine 299:690-94.

Farquhar JW (1978) The community-based model of life style intervention trials. American Journal of Epidemiology 108:103-111.

Peto R (1978) Clinical trial methodology. Biomedicine 28 (special issue):24-36.

Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG (1977) Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. II. Analysis and examples. British Journal of Cancer 35:1-39. PMID 831755.

Pocock SJ (1977) Randomised clinical trials. BMJ 1:1661.

Bunker JP, Barnes BA, Mosteller F (1977) Costs, risks and benefits of surgery. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG (1976) Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. I. Introduction and design. British Journal of Cancer 34:585-6.

Cornfield J (1976) Recent methodological contributions to clinical trials. American Journal of Epidemiology 104:408-421.

Chalmers TC (1975) Randomization of the first patient. Medical Clinics of North America 59:1035-1038.

Cochrane AL (1972) Effectiveness and Efficiency: random reflections on health services. London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust.

Cornfield J (1971) The University Group Diabetes Program: a further statistical analysis of the mortality findings. JAMA 217:1676-87.

Schwartz D, Flamant R, Lellouch J (1970) L’essai thérapeutique chez l‘homme. Paris: Flammarion.

Chalmers TC (1968) When should randomisation begin? Lancet 1:858.

Schwartz D, Lellouch J (1967) Explanatory and pragmatic attitudes in therapeutic trials. Journal of Chronic Diseases 20:637-48.

Schneiderman MA (1966) Therapeutic trials in cancer. Working paper prepared for WHO Expert Committee on Cancer Treatment, Geneva, Switzerland, 9-15 March 1965. WHO/CANC/66.66.

Pollock TM, Bell JA, Hill AB, Cockburn WC, Cvjetanović B, Evans DG, Kostrzewski J, Schofield FD (1966) Trials of Prophylactic agents for the control of communicable diseases: a guide to their organization and evaluation‎. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Percy JS, Stephenson P, Thompson M (1964) Indomethacin in the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 28:157-162.

Campbell DT, Stanley JC (1963) Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company.

Mainland D (1963) Elementary medical statistics: 2nd edn. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.

Truelove SC, Watkinson G, Draper G (1962) Comparison of corticosteroid and sulphasalazine therapy in ulcerative colitis. BMJ 2:1708-1711.

Cohen J (1962) The statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: a review. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 65:145-153.

Hill AB (1962) Alfred Watson Memorial Lecture: The Statistician in Medicine. Journal of the Institute of Actuaries 88:178-191. doi:10.1017/S0020268100014980

Cochran WG (1961) Designing clinical trials. In: Forster FM, ed. Evaluation of drug therapy. University of Wisconsin Press, pp 71-77.

Armitage P (1960) Sequential medical trials. Oxford: Blackwell.

Schwartz D, Flamant R, Lellouch J, Rouquette C (1960) Les essais thérapeutiques cliniques [Controlled clinical trials]. Paris: Masson.

Hill AB (1960) Controlled clinical trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

Mainland D (1960) The use and misuse of statistics in medical publications. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1:411-22.

Knowelden J (1960) The analysis and presentation of results. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 155-159.

Bywaters E (1960) Rheumatoid arthritis. Treatment and illustrative answers. In: Hill AB ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp 75-83.

Witts LJ (1959) Medical surveys and clinical trials: some methods and applications of group research in medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Oldham PD (1959) Clinical and field trials. Acta Medica Hungarica 14:313-326.

Doll R (1959) Practical problems of drug trials in clinical practice. Lawrence DR, ed. Quantitative methods in human pharmacology and therapeutics. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 213-221.

Waife SO, Shapiro AP (1959) The clinical evaluation of new drugs. New York: Hoeber-Harper.

Bull JP (1959) The historical development of clinical therapeutic trials. Journal of Chronic Diseases 10:218-248.

James Lind Library
Illustrating the development of fair tests of treatments in health care

Turner KM, Huntley A, Yardley T, Dawson S, Dawson S (2024)
Defining usual care comparators when designing pragmatic trials of complex health interventions: a methodology review. Trials 25, 117. https://trialsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13063-024-07956-7

RECOVERY Trial Team (2020)
Randomized Evaluation of COVID019 Therapy (RECOVERY). RECOVERY Central Coordinating Office, Oxford. www.recoverytrial.net

Bradley SH, DeVito NJ, Lloyd KE, Richards GC, Rombey T, Wayant C, Gill PJ (2020)
Reducing bias and improving transparency in medical research: a critical overview of the problems, progress and suggested next steps. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 113:433-443.

Chalmers I (2017)
The evolution of fair tests of treatments over two millennia: a 23 minute audio commentary. Edited by Hamish Chalmers, using unbroadcast recordings made by Freakonomics Radio, with permission.

Page MJ, Higgins JPT, Clayton G, Sterne JAC, Hróbjartsson A, Savović J (2016)
Empirical Evidence of Study Design Biases in Randomized Trials: Systematic Review of Meta-Epidemiological Studies. PLOS ONE 11(7):e0159267.

Sackett DL (2015)
Sackett DL. Interview in 2014 and 2015. Brian Haynes, ed. McMaster University.

Abraha I, Cherubini A, Cozzolino F, De Florio R, Luchetta ML, Rimland JM, Folletti I, Marchesi M, Germani A, Orso M, Eusebi P, Montedori A (2015)
Deviation from intention to treat analysis in randomised trials and treatment effect estimates: meta-epidemiological study. BMJ 2015;350:h2445.

Smith V, Clarke M, Devane D, Begley C, Shorter G, Maguire L (2013)
SWAT 1: what effects do site visits by the principal investigator have on recruitment in a multicentre randomized trial? Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine 6(3), 136-137 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jebm.12049

Clarke M, Loudon K (2011)
Effects on patients of their healthcare practitioner's or institution's participation in clinical trials: a systematic review. Trials 12:16.

Montedori A, Cherubini A, Bonacini MI, Casazza G, Luchetta ML, Duca P, Cozzolino F, Abraha I (2011)
Modified versus standard intention-to-treat reporting: Are there differences in methodological quality, sponsorship, and findings in randomised trials? A cross-sectional study. Trials 12:58.

Bassler D, Briel M, Montori VM, Lane M, Glasziou P, Zhou Q, Heels-Ansdell D, Walter SD, Guyatt GH; STOPIT-2 Study Group (2010)
Stopping randomized trials early for benefit and estimation of treatment effects: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. JAMA. 303:1180-7.

Kramer MS, Martin RM, Sterne JA, Shapiro S, Mourad D, Platt RW (2009)
The double jeopardy of clustered measurement and cluster randomisation. BMJ 339:503-505.

Trotta F, Apolone G, Garattini S, Tafuri G (2008)
Stopping a trial early in oncology: for patients or for industry? Annals of Oncology Feb 29; doi:10.1093/annonc/mdn042.

Perel P, Roberts I, Sena E, Wheble P, Briscoe C, Sandercock S, Macleod M, Mignini LE, Jayaram P, Khan KS (2007)
Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review. BMJ 334:197-200.

Glasziou P, Chalmers I, Rawlins M, McCulloch P (2007)
When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise. BMJ 334: 349-351.

Jones B, Kenward MG (2003)
Design and Analysis of Cross-Over-Trials (2nd Ed). London and USA: Chapman and Hall.

Wagner AK, Soumerai SB, Zhang F, Ross-Degnan D (2002)
Segmented regression analysis of interrupted time series studies in medication use research. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 27:299–309.

Stangl D, Berry DA (2000)
Meta-Analysis in Medicine and Health Policy. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Sutton AJ, Abrams KR, Jones DR, Sheldon T, Song F (2000)
Methods for Meta-Analysis in Medical Research. Chichester: Wiley.

Ruiz-Canela M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, de Irala-Estevez J (2000)
Intention-to-treat analysis is related to methodological quality. BMJ 320:107-108.

Hollis S, Campbell F (1999)
What is meant by intention-to-treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials. BMJ 319:670-674.

Murray DM (1998)
Design and Analysis of Group Randomized Trials. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.

Simpson JM, Klar N, Donner A (1995)
Accounting for cluster randomization: a review of primary prevention trials, 1990 through 1993. American Journal of Public Health 85:1378-1383.

Schulz KF, Chalmers I, Altman DG, Grimes DA, Doré CJ (1995)
The methodologic quality of randomization as assessed from reports of trials in specialist and general medical journals. Online Journal of Current Clinical Trials 4:197.

Hill AB, Hill ID (1991)
Differential exclusions. In: Bradford Hill’s Principles of Medical Statistics. 12th edition. London: Edward Arnold. pp 226-228.

Donner A, Brown KS, Brasher P (1990)
A methodological review of non-therapeutic intervention trials employing cluster randomization, 1979-1989. International Journal of Epidemiology 19:795-800.

O’Rourke K, Detsky AS (1989)
Meta-analysis in medical research: strong encouragement for higher quality in individual research efforts. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42:1021-24.

Pocock SJ, Hughes MD (1989)
Practical problems in interim analyses, with particular regard to estimation. Control Clinical Trials10 (4 Suppl):209S-221S.

Jenicek M (1989)
Meta-analysis in medicine: where we are and where we want to go. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42:35-44.

ISIS-2 (second International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group (1988)
Randomised trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17 187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction: ISIS-2. Lancet 332:349–360.

Chalmers TC (1988)
Data analysis for clinical medicine: the quantitative approach to patient care in gastroenterology. Rome: International University Press.

Jenicek M (1987)
Méta-analyse en médecine. Évaluation et synthèse de l’information clinique et épidémiologique. [Meta-analysis in medicine: evaluation and synthesis of clinical and epidemiological information] St.Hyacinthe and Paris: EDISEM and Maloine Éditeurs.

Machin D, Campbell MJ (1987)
Statistical Tables for the Design of Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell scientific publications.

Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Streptochinasi nell'Infarto Miocardico (GISSI) (1986)
Effectiveness of intravenous thrombolytic treatment in acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 1: 397-402.

Peto J, Eden OB, Lilleyman J, Richards S (1986)
Improvement in treatments for children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: The Medical Research Council UKALL Trials, 1972-84. Lancet 1:408-411.

Bulpitt CJ (1984)
Randomised controlled clinical trials. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Pocock SJ (1983)
Clinical trials: a practical approach. Chichester: John Wiley.

Chalmers TC, Smith JH, Blackburn B, Silverman B, Schroeder B, Reitman D, Ambroz A (1981)
A method for assessing the quality of a randomized control trial. Controlled Clinical Trials 2: 31-49.

Sackett DL (1979)
Bias in analytic research. Journal of Chronic Diseases 32:51-63.

Freiman JA, Chalmers TC, Smith H, Kuebler RR (1978)
The importance of beta, the type II error and sample size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial. Survey of 71 "negative" trials. New England Journal of Medicine 299:690-94.

Farquhar JW (1978)
The community-based model of life style intervention trials. American Journal of Epidemiology 108:103-111.

Peto R (1978)
Clinical trial methodology. Biomedicine 28 (special issue):24-36.

Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG (1977)
Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. II. Analysis and examples. British Journal of Cancer 35:1-39. PMID 831755.

Pocock SJ (1977)
Randomised clinical trials. BMJ 1:1661.

Bunker JP, Barnes BA, Mosteller F (1977)
Costs, risks and benefits of surgery. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG (1976)
Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. I. Introduction and design. British Journal of Cancer 34:585-6.

Cornfield J (1976)
Recent methodological contributions to clinical trials. American Journal of Epidemiology 104:408-421.

Chalmers TC (1975)
Randomization of the first patient. Medical Clinics of North America 59:1035-1038.

Cochrane AL (1972)
Effectiveness and Efficiency: random reflections on health services. London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust.

Cornfield J (1971)
The University Group Diabetes Program: a further statistical analysis of the mortality findings. JAMA 217:1676-87.

Schwartz D, Flamant R, Lellouch J (1970)
L’essai thérapeutique chez l‘homme. Paris: Flammarion.

Chalmers TC (1968)
When should randomisation begin? Lancet 1:858.

Schwartz D, Lellouch J (1967)
Explanatory and pragmatic attitudes in therapeutic trials. Journal of Chronic Diseases 20:637-48.

Schneiderman MA (1966)
Therapeutic trials in cancer. Working paper prepared for WHO Expert Committee on Cancer Treatment, Geneva, Switzerland, 9-15 March 1965. WHO/CANC/66.66.

Pollock TM, Bell JA, Hill AB, Cockburn WC, Cvjetanović B, Evans DG, Kostrzewski J, Schofield FD (1966)
Trials of Prophylactic agents for the control of communicable diseases: a guide to their organization and evaluation‎. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Percy JS, Stephenson P, Thompson M (1964)
Indomethacin in the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases 28:157-162.

Campbell DT, Stanley JC (1963)
Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company.

Mainland D (1963)
Elementary medical statistics: 2nd edn. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.

Truelove SC, Watkinson G, Draper G (1962)
Comparison of corticosteroid and sulphasalazine therapy in ulcerative colitis. BMJ 2:1708-1711.

Cohen J (1962)
The statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: a review. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 65:145-153.

Hill AB (1962)
Alfred Watson Memorial Lecture: The Statistician in Medicine. Journal of the Institute of Actuaries 88:178-191. doi:10.1017/S0020268100014980

Cochran WG (1961)
Designing clinical trials. In: Forster FM, ed. Evaluation of drug therapy. University of Wisconsin Press, pp 71-77.

Armitage P (1960)
Sequential medical trials. Oxford: Blackwell.

Schwartz D, Flamant R, Lellouch J, Rouquette C (1960)
Les essais thérapeutiques cliniques [Controlled clinical trials]. Paris: Masson.

Hill AB (1960)
Controlled clinical trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

Mainland D (1960)
The use and misuse of statistics in medical publications. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1:411-22.

Knowelden J (1960)
The analysis and presentation of results. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 155-159.

Bywaters E (1960)
Rheumatoid arthritis. Treatment and illustrative answers. In: Hill AB ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp 75-83.

Witts LJ (1959)
Medical surveys and clinical trials: some methods and applications of group research in medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Oldham PD (1959)
Clinical and field trials. Acta Medica Hungarica 14:313-326.

Doll R (1959)
Practical problems of drug trials in clinical practice. Lawrence DR, ed. Quantitative methods in human pharmacology and therapeutics. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 213-221.

Waife SO, Shapiro AP (1959)
The clinical evaluation of new drugs. New York: Hoeber-Harper.

Bull JP (1959)
The historical development of clinical therapeutic trials. Journal of Chronic Diseases 10:218-248.

Robertson JD, Armitage P (1959)
Report of a clinical trial to compare two hypotensive agents. Anaesthesia 14:53-64.

Laurence DR, ed. (1959)
Quantitative Methods in Human Pharmacology and Therapeutics. London: Pergamon Press.

Lasagna L, Meier P (1959)
Experimental Design and Statistical Problems. In: Waife SO, Shapiro AP, eds. The Clinical Evaluation of New Drugs. New York: Hoeber. pp 37-60.

Knowelden J (1959)
Prophylactic trials. In: Witts LJ ed. Medical Surveys and Clinical Trials. London: Oxford University Press. pp 118-133.

Watkinson G (1958)
Treatment of ulcerative colitis with topical hydrocortisone hemisuccinate sodium. A controlled trial employing restricted sequential analysis. BMJ 2:1077-82.

Cox DR (1958)
Planning of experiments. London: Wiley.