Recording and interpreting numbers

Numbers are needed to record the results of fair tests of treatments, and tables and graphs are used to describe the characteristics and experience of groups of patients, the treatment they have received, and quantitative estimates of treatment effects.

95 RECORDS
42 ARTICLES

The need to address treatment uncertainties

Principles of Testing

Treatment comparisons are essential

Treatment comparisons must be fair

Biases

Double dummy

The play of chance

Bringing it all together for the benefit of patients and the public

James Lind LibraryIllustrating the development of fair tests of treatments in health care

Recording and interpreting numbers

Numbers are needed to record the results of fair tests of treatments, and tables and graphs are used to describe the characteristics and experience of groups of patients, the treatment they have received, and quantitative estimates of treatment effects.

SORT date ▼ author

95 RECORDS

42 ARTICLES

Schoeler T, Speed D, Porcu E, Pirastu N, Pingault JB, Kutalik Z (2023) Participation bias in the UK Biobank distorts genetic associations and downstream analyses. Nat Hum Behav. 2023 Jul;7(7):1216-1227. doi: 10.1038/s41562-023-01579-9.

Bradley VC, Kuriwaki S, Isakov M, Sejdinovic D, Meng X, Flaxman S (2021) Unrepresentative big surveys significantly overestimated US vaccine uptake. Nature 600, 695–700. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04198-4.

Ristl R, Urach S, Rosenkranz G, Posch M (2018) Methods for the analysis of multiple endpoints in small populations: A review. Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics 29:1-29.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2016) Major Greenwood (1880 – 1949): a biographical and bibliographical study. Statistics in Medicine 35(5):645-670.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2016) Major Greenwood (1880 – 1949): the biography. Statistics in Medicine 35: 5533-5535.

Abraha I, Cherubini A, Cozzolino F, De Florio R, Luchetta ML, Rimland JM, Folletti I, Marchesi M, Germani A, Orso M, Eusebi P, Montedori A (2015) Deviation from intention to treat analysis in randomised trials and treatment effect estimates: meta-epidemiological study. BMJ 2015;350:h2445.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2014) Major Greenwood’s Early Career and the First Departments of Medical Statistics. Statistics in Medicine 33: 2161 – 2173.

White IR, Carpenter J, Horton NJ (2012) Including all individuals is not enough: lessons for intention-to-treat analysis. Clinical Trials 9:396-407.

Montedori A, Cherubini A, Bonacini MI, Casazza G, Luchetta ML, Duca P, Cozzolino F, Abraha I (2011) Modified versus standard intention-to-treat reporting: Are there differences in methodological quality, sponsorship, and findings in randomised trials? A cross-sectional study. Trials 12:58.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2010) Woods and Russell, Hill, and the emergence of medical statistics. Statistics in Medicine 29:1459-1476.

Ruiz-Canela M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, de Irala-Estevez J (2000) Intention-to-treat analysis is related to methodological quality. BMJ 320:107-108.

Hollis S, Campbell F (1999) What is meant by intention-to-treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials. BMJ 319:670-674.

Hill AB, Hill ID (1991) Differential exclusions. In: Bradford Hill’s Principles of Medical Statistics. 12th edition. London: Edward Arnold. pp 226-228.

Newcombe RG (1988) Explanatory and pragmatic estimates of the treatment effect when deviations from allocated treatment occur. . Statistics in Medicine Volume 7, Issue 11 p. 1179-1186.

Armitage P (1971) Statistical methods in medical research. Blackwell Scientific Publications: Edinburgh.

Ley HL (1969) Antibiotic drugs: procedural and interpretive regulations. Federal Register Vol. 34, No. 180, pp14596-597.

Mainland D (1963) The significance of "nonsignificance". Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 4:580-6.

Mainland D (1963) Elementary medical statistics: 2nd edn. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.

Knowelden J (1960) The analysis and presentation of results. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 155-159.

Bywaters E (1960) Rheumatoid arthritis. Treatment and illustrative answers. In: Hill AB ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp 75-83.

Laurence DR, ed. (1959) Quantitative Methods in Human Pharmacology and Therapeutics. London: Pergamon Press.

Lasagna L, Meier P (1959) Experimental Design and Statistical Problems. In: Waife SO, Shapiro AP, eds. The Clinical Evaluation of New Drugs. New York: Hoeber. pp 37-60.

Knowelden J (1959) Prophylactic trials. In: Witts LJ ed. Medical Surveys and Clinical Trials. London: Oxford University Press. pp 118-133.

Sutherland I (1958) Statistical aspects of clinical trials. In: Dodds C, ed. Report of a Symposium on Clinical Trials held at The Royal Society of Medicine, London, 25 April, p 53, pp 50-55.

Herdan G (1955) Statistics of Therapeutic Trials. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Mainland D (1952) Intercurrent Events. In: Elementary Medical Statistics: the principles of quantitative medicine. London: WB Saunders Company, p 109. [Facimile copy printed and bound in India. Pranava Books. 2- LB100151138852 -301 -4 sa.]

Lancaster HO (1951) Quantitative methods in biological and medical sciences. Springer: New York.

Greenwood M (1943) Statistical note. Lancet 2:634-5.

Ephraim A (1893) Uber die Bedeutung de statistischen Methode für die Medicin [On the relevance of the statistical method for medicine]. Volkmann’s Sammlung Klinische Vortraege N.F. Innere Medicin 24:706-716. Leipzig: Breitkopf and Härtel.

Liebermeister C (1877) Ueber Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung in Anwendung auf therapeutische Statistik [On the calculus of probabilities applied to therapeutic statistics]. In: Volkmann R (ed), Sammlung Klinischer Vortrȁge, Innere Medicin, No 39, pp 935-962.

Jessen W (1867) Zur analytischen statistik [On analytic statistics]. Zeitschrift for biologie 3:128-136.

Jürgensen T (1866) Klinische Studien über die Behandlung des Abdominalytyphus mittelst des kalten wassers [Clinical studes on the treatment of abdominal typhus with cold water]. Leipzig, Vogel, pviii.

Fick A (1866) Die Medicinische Physik [Medical physics]. Braunschweig,Vieweg, pp 430-447.

Bennett JH (1865) The restorative treatment of pneumonia. Edinburgh, AC Black.

Béclard PA (1863) Rapport général sur les prix décernés en 1862 [General report on the prizes awarded in 1862]. Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale de Médecine XXVI, Paris: Ballière, pp. xxii-xxxv.

Schweig G (1854) Auseinandersetzung der statistischen Methode [Deliberation about the statistical method]. Archiv fὔr physiologische Helkunde 13:305-355.

Bartlett E (1844) An essay on the philosophy of medical science. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard.

Alcock R (1840-41b) Lectures on amputations and on the nature, progress and termination of the injuries for which it is required (Lecture 2 of 20). Lancet 1:217-220 and passim up to 2:849—858.

Alcock R (1840-41a) Lectures on amputations and on the nature, progress and termination of the injuries for which it is required (Lecture 1 of 20). Lancet 1:105-111 and passim up to 2:849—858.

Gavarret LDJ (1840) Principes généraux de statistique médicale: ou développement des régles qui doivent présider à son emploi [General principles of medical statistics: or the development of rules that must govern their use]. Paris: Bechet jeune & Labé.

Alcock R (1840) Observations on injuries of joints and their treatment. Medico - chirurgical Transactions 23: 243-322.

Alcock R (1838) Notes on the medical history and statistics of the British Legion in Spain; comprising the results of gun-shot wounds, in relation to important questions in surgery. London: Churchill, p 8-9, 27, 47, 54, 58-59.

Poisson, Dulong, Larrey et Double (1835) Recherches de statistique sur l’affection calculeuse, par M. le docteur Civiale. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie de Sciences [Statistical research on (urinary) stone, by M. Dr Civiale]. Paris: Bachelier, 167-177.

Todd TJ (1831) The book of analysis or a new method of experience whereby the induction of the Novum Organon [of Bacon] is made easy of application to medicine, physiology… London, Murray.

Hawkins FB (1829) The elements of medical statistics. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green.

Hutchinson AC (1817) Some further observations on the subject of the proper period for amputating in gun-shot wounds. London: Callow, p16.

MacGrigor J (1816) Sketch of the medical history of the British armies in the peninsula of Spain and Portugal, during the late campaigns. Medico-chirurgical Transactions 6:381-489.

Blane G (1813) Observations on the comparative prevalence, mortality, & treatment of different diseases.... Medico-chirurgical Transactions, Vol 4, p 89-141, London.

Mills T (1813) An essay on the utility of bloodletting in fever Dublin: J.Barlow, for Gilbert and Hodges, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown.

Black W (1810) A dissertation on insanity; illustrated with tables and extracted from between two and three thousand cases in Bedlam. London: for the author.

Haslam J (1809) Observations on madness and melancholy. London: Callow.

Falconer W (1807) A practical dissertation on the effects of the medicinal effects of the Bath waters. London and Bath: Robinson & Crutwell. 3rd edition Bath: Meyler and London: Robinson, pp 29, 40-41, 50-52, 72-74, 99, 101, 106, 115-116, 117, 124.

Sutton T (1806) A practical account of remittent fever. London: Robinson, p 16-17.

Haygarth J (1805) A clinical history of diseases 1. Acute rheumatism. 2. Nodosity of the joints. London: Cadell and Davies.

Currie W (1804) Medical reports of the effects of water: cold and warm as a remedy in fever and febrile diseases. Vol. 2. London: M’Creery & Cadell.

Percival T (1803) Medical ethics or, a code of institutes and precepts adapted to the professional conduct of physicians and surgeons. Manchester: S Russell for J Johnson.

Haygarth J (1803) A letter to Dr Percival on the prevention of infections, fevers… Annals of Medicine. Vol II, Lustrum II, 51-78.

McGrigor J (1801) Account of diseases of the 88th Regiment, during their passage to India, and at Bombay, from December 1798 till June 1800. Annals of Medicine, Vol I Lustrum II, 1:353-369.

Rollo J (1801) A short account of the Royal Artillery Hospital at Woolwich. London: Mawman.

Millar J (1798) Observations on the management of diseases in the Army and Navy in reply to Dr. Monroe. London: for the Author.

Millar J (1798) Observations on the conduct of the war. An appeal to the people of Great Britain. London: for the author.

Gordon A (1795) A treatise on the epidemic puerperal fever of Aberdeen. In: Churchill F, ed (1849). Essays on the puerperal fever and other diseases selected from the writings of British authors previous to the close of the eighteenth century. London: Sydenham Society, p 445-500.

Rowley W (1793) The causes of a great number of deaths amongst adults and children. 2nd edn. London: Newbery.

Robertson R (1790) Essay on fever. London: printed for the author.

Black W (1789) An arithmetical and medical analysis of the diseases and mortality of the human species. London: J Johnson.

Robertson R (1789) Observations on jail, hospital, or ship fever. New ed. London: for the Author.

Blane G (1789) Observations on the diseases incident to seamen. 2nd edition. London: Cooper.

Black W (1788) A comparative view of the mortality of the human species at all ages. London: Dilly, pp 35-38.

Alanson E (1782) Practical observations on amputation, and the after-treatment, 2nd edn. London: Joseph Johnson.

Rollo J (1781) Observations on the diseases which appeared in the Army on St Lucia…, Barbados. Orderson for the author.

Clark J (1780) Observations on fevers, especially of the continued type. London: T Cadell.

Home F (1780) Clinical experiments, histories and dissections. Edinburgh: Creech; London: Murray.

Millar J (1779) Observations on the management of the prevailing diseases particularly in the Army and Navy. London, for the author.

Lettsom JC (1775) On the improvement of medicine in London on the basis of public good. London: Phillips.

James Lind Library
Illustrating the development of fair tests of treatments in health care

Schoeler T, Speed D, Porcu E, Pirastu N, Pingault JB, Kutalik Z (2023)
Participation bias in the UK Biobank distorts genetic associations and downstream analyses. Nat Hum Behav. 2023 Jul;7(7):1216-1227. doi: 10.1038/s41562-023-01579-9.

Bradley VC, Kuriwaki S, Isakov M, Sejdinovic D, Meng X, Flaxman S (2021)
Unrepresentative big surveys significantly overestimated US vaccine uptake. Nature 600, 695–700. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04198-4.

Ristl R, Urach S, Rosenkranz G, Posch M (2018)
Methods for the analysis of multiple endpoints in small populations: A review. Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics 29:1-29.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2016)
Major Greenwood (1880 – 1949): a biographical and bibliographical study. Statistics in Medicine 35(5):645-670.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2016)
Major Greenwood (1880 – 1949): the biography. Statistics in Medicine 35: 5533-5535.

Abraha I, Cherubini A, Cozzolino F, De Florio R, Luchetta ML, Rimland JM, Folletti I, Marchesi M, Germani A, Orso M, Eusebi P, Montedori A (2015)
Deviation from intention to treat analysis in randomised trials and treatment effect estimates: meta-epidemiological study. BMJ 2015;350:h2445.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2014)
Major Greenwood’s Early Career and the First Departments of Medical Statistics. Statistics in Medicine 33: 2161 – 2173.

White IR, Carpenter J, Horton NJ (2012)
Including all individuals is not enough: lessons for intention-to-treat analysis. Clinical Trials 9:396-407.

Montedori A, Cherubini A, Bonacini MI, Casazza G, Luchetta ML, Duca P, Cozzolino F, Abraha I (2011)
Modified versus standard intention-to-treat reporting: Are there differences in methodological quality, sponsorship, and findings in randomised trials? A cross-sectional study. Trials 12:58.

Farewell V, Johnson T (2010)
Woods and Russell, Hill, and the emergence of medical statistics. Statistics in Medicine 29:1459-1476.

Ruiz-Canela M, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, de Irala-Estevez J (2000)
Intention-to-treat analysis is related to methodological quality. BMJ 320:107-108.

Hollis S, Campbell F (1999)
What is meant by intention-to-treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials. BMJ 319:670-674.

Hill AB, Hill ID (1991)
Differential exclusions. In: Bradford Hill’s Principles of Medical Statistics. 12th edition. London: Edward Arnold. pp 226-228.

Newcombe RG (1988)
Explanatory and pragmatic estimates of the treatment effect when deviations from allocated treatment occur. . Statistics in Medicine Volume 7, Issue 11 p. 1179-1186.

Armitage P (1971)
Statistical methods in medical research. Blackwell Scientific Publications: Edinburgh.

Ley HL (1969)
Antibiotic drugs: procedural and interpretive regulations. Federal Register Vol. 34, No. 180, pp14596-597.

Mainland D (1963)
The significance of "nonsignificance". Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 4:580-6.

Mainland D (1963)
Elementary medical statistics: 2nd edn. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co.

Knowelden J (1960)
The analysis and presentation of results. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. In: Hill AB, ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 155-159.

Bywaters E (1960)
Rheumatoid arthritis. Treatment and illustrative answers. In: Hill AB ed. Controlled Clinical Trials. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp 75-83.

Laurence DR, ed. (1959)
Quantitative Methods in Human Pharmacology and Therapeutics. London: Pergamon Press.

Lasagna L, Meier P (1959)
Experimental Design and Statistical Problems. In: Waife SO, Shapiro AP, eds. The Clinical Evaluation of New Drugs. New York: Hoeber. pp 37-60.

Knowelden J (1959)
Prophylactic trials. In: Witts LJ ed. Medical Surveys and Clinical Trials. London: Oxford University Press. pp 118-133.

Sutherland I (1958)
Statistical aspects of clinical trials. In: Dodds C, ed. Report of a Symposium on Clinical Trials held at The Royal Society of Medicine, London, 25 April, p 53, pp 50-55.

Herdan G (1955)
Statistics of Therapeutic Trials. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Mainland D (1952)
Intercurrent Events. In: Elementary Medical Statistics: the principles of quantitative medicine. London: WB Saunders Company, p 109. [Facimile copy printed and bound in India. Pranava Books. 2- LB100151138852 -301 -4 sa.]

Lancaster HO (1951)
Quantitative methods in biological and medical sciences. Springer: New York.

Greenwood M (1943)
Statistical note. Lancet 2:634-5.

Ephraim A (1893)
Uber die Bedeutung de statistischen Methode für die Medicin [On the relevance of the statistical method for medicine]. Volkmann’s Sammlung Klinische Vortraege N.F. Innere Medicin 24:706-716. Leipzig: Breitkopf and Härtel.

Liebermeister C (1877)
Ueber Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung in Anwendung auf therapeutische Statistik [On the calculus of probabilities applied to therapeutic statistics]. In: Volkmann R (ed), Sammlung Klinischer Vortrȁge, Innere Medicin, No 39, pp 935-962.

Jessen W (1867)
Zur analytischen statistik [On analytic statistics]. Zeitschrift for biologie 3:128-136.

Jürgensen T (1866)
Klinische Studien über die Behandlung des Abdominalytyphus mittelst des kalten wassers [Clinical studes on the treatment of abdominal typhus with cold water]. Leipzig, Vogel, pviii.

Fick A (1866)
Die Medicinische Physik [Medical physics]. Braunschweig,Vieweg, pp 430-447.

Bennett JH (1865)
The restorative treatment of pneumonia. Edinburgh, AC Black.

Béclard PA (1863)
Rapport général sur les prix décernés en 1862 [General report on the prizes awarded in 1862]. Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale de Médecine XXVI, Paris: Ballière, pp. xxii-xxxv.

Schweig G (1854)
Auseinandersetzung der statistischen Methode [Deliberation about the statistical method]. Archiv fὔr physiologische Helkunde 13:305-355.

Bartlett E (1844)
An essay on the philosophy of medical science. Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard.

Alcock R (1840-41b)
Lectures on amputations and on the nature, progress and termination of the injuries for which it is required (Lecture 2 of 20). Lancet 1:217-220 and passim up to 2:849—858.

Alcock R (1840-41a)
Lectures on amputations and on the nature, progress and termination of the injuries for which it is required (Lecture 1 of 20). Lancet 1:105-111 and passim up to 2:849—858.

Gavarret LDJ (1840)
Principes généraux de statistique médicale: ou développement des régles qui doivent présider à son emploi [General principles of medical statistics: or the development of rules that must govern their use]. Paris: Bechet jeune & Labé.

Alcock R (1840)
Observations on injuries of joints and their treatment. Medico - chirurgical Transactions 23: 243-322.

Alcock R (1838)
Notes on the medical history and statistics of the British Legion in Spain; comprising the results of gun-shot wounds, in relation to important questions in surgery. London: Churchill, p 8-9, 27, 47, 54, 58-59.

Poisson, Dulong, Larrey et Double (1835)
Recherches de statistique sur l’affection calculeuse, par M. le docteur Civiale. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie de Sciences [Statistical research on (urinary) stone, by M. Dr Civiale]. Paris: Bachelier, 167-177.

Todd TJ (1831)
The book of analysis or a new method of experience whereby the induction of the Novum Organon [of Bacon] is made easy of application to medicine, physiology… London, Murray.

Hawkins FB (1829)
The elements of medical statistics. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green.

Hutchinson AC (1817)
Some further observations on the subject of the proper period for amputating in gun-shot wounds. London: Callow, p16.

MacGrigor J (1816)
Sketch of the medical history of the British armies in the peninsula of Spain and Portugal, during the late campaigns. Medico-chirurgical Transactions 6:381-489.

Blane G (1813)
Observations on the comparative prevalence, mortality, & treatment of different diseases.... Medico-chirurgical Transactions, Vol 4, p 89-141, London.

Mills T (1813)
An essay on the utility of bloodletting in fever Dublin: J.Barlow, for Gilbert and Hodges, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown.

Black W (1810)
A dissertation on insanity; illustrated with tables and extracted from between two and three thousand cases in Bedlam. London: for the author.

Haslam J (1809)
Observations on madness and melancholy. London: Callow.

Falconer W (1807)
A practical dissertation on the effects of the medicinal effects of the Bath waters. London and Bath: Robinson & Crutwell. 3rd edition Bath: Meyler and London: Robinson, pp 29, 40-41, 50-52, 72-74, 99, 101, 106, 115-116, 117, 124.

Sutton T (1806)
A practical account of remittent fever. London: Robinson, p 16-17.

Haygarth J (1805)
A clinical history of diseases 1. Acute rheumatism. 2. Nodosity of the joints. London: Cadell and Davies.

Currie W (1804)
Medical reports of the effects of water: cold and warm as a remedy in fever and febrile diseases. Vol. 2. London: M’Creery & Cadell.

Percival T (1803)
Medical ethics or, a code of institutes and precepts adapted to the professional conduct of physicians and surgeons. Manchester: S Russell for J Johnson.

Haygarth J (1803)
A letter to Dr Percival on the prevention of infections, fevers… Annals of Medicine. Vol II, Lustrum II, 51-78.

McGrigor J (1801)
Account of diseases of the 88th Regiment, during their passage to India, and at Bombay, from December 1798 till June 1800. Annals of Medicine, Vol I Lustrum II, 1:353-369.

Rollo J (1801)
A short account of the Royal Artillery Hospital at Woolwich. London: Mawman.

Millar J (1798)
Observations on the management of diseases in the Army and Navy in reply to Dr. Monroe. London: for the Author.

Millar J (1798)
Observations on the conduct of the war. An appeal to the people of Great Britain. London: for the author.

Gordon A (1795)
A treatise on the epidemic puerperal fever of Aberdeen. In: Churchill F, ed (1849). Essays on the puerperal fever and other diseases selected from the writings of British authors previous to the close of the eighteenth century. London: Sydenham Society, p 445-500.

Rowley W (1793)
The causes of a great number of deaths amongst adults and children. 2nd edn. London: Newbery.

Robertson R (1790)
Essay on fever. London: printed for the author.

Black W (1789)
An arithmetical and medical analysis of the diseases and mortality of the human species. London: J Johnson.

Robertson R (1789)
Observations on jail, hospital, or ship fever. New ed. London: for the Author.

Blane G (1789)
Observations on the diseases incident to seamen. 2nd edition. London: Cooper.

Black W (1788)
A comparative view of the mortality of the human species at all ages. London: Dilly, pp 35-38.

Alanson E (1782)
Practical observations on amputation, and the after-treatment, 2nd edn. London: Joseph Johnson.

Rollo J (1781)
Observations on the diseases which appeared in the Army on St Lucia…, Barbados. Orderson for the author.

Clark J (1780)
Observations on fevers, especially of the continued type. London: T Cadell.

Home F (1780)
Clinical experiments, histories and dissections. Edinburgh: Creech; London: Murray.

Millar J (1779)
Observations on the management of the prevailing diseases particularly in the Army and Navy. London, for the author.

Lettsom JC (1775)
On the improvement of medicine in London on the basis of public good. London: Phillips.

Lettsom JC (1774)
Medical memoirs of the General Dispensary in London. London: for the Author.

Millar J (1770)
Observations on the prevailing diseases in Great Britain. London: Cadell.

White C (1770)
Cases in surgery. London: Johnson., p vi, viii.

Charleton R (1770)
An inquiry into the efficacy of warm bathing in palsies. Oxford: Clarendon.

Watson W (1768)
An account of a series of experiments, instituted with a view of ascertaining the most successful method of inoculating the smallpox. London: J Nourse.